Nonda

In Papua New Guinea, a number of mushrooms from the genera Boletus, Russula, and Heimiella are generally referred to by the name nonda. They reportedly are consumed by the Kuma tribe and produce a temporary state of "mushroom madness"385 that is characterized by manic, wild behavior (Reay 1960). The mushrooms are eaten for culinary purposes throughout the year; it is only at a particular time (during moderate rainfall) that they are said to elicit these psychoactive effects. The fruits (nong'n) of a Pandanus sp. are said to be able to produce the same effects (Reay 1959, 188). The Kuma once used the effects of nonda mushrooms to induce a wild and uninhibited aggressiveness before undertaking acts of warfare (Heim 1972, 170). Occasionally, the "mushroom madness" was also said to produce hallucinations of a terrible or pleasantly cheerful nature. Some Papuans describe the condition as a "bad trip" (Nelson 1970, 10). This "mushroom madness" is strongly reminiscent of the "wild man" behavior that is so well known on Papua New Guinea (Newman 1964) as well as of the Balinese phenomenon of amok. Running amok, however, is not induced by any psychoactive substances but, rather, appears to be a traditional pattern of behavior within the culture (cf. Kertonegoro 1991, 61-102). In the same way, the "wild man" behavior, which is known as longlong, also appears to be learned and culturally patterned. It can appear without any pharmacological stimuli, at least among the Gururumba: It begins when a person simply stops reacting to words. Because of this, he is also unable to understand anything, and his speech consists solely of inarticulate babbling or shrieking. Often, this condition leads to a violent shaking of the body, shortness of breath, and uncontrolled movements. In this state, the afflicted person may then take up his weapon and run through the village. (R~itsch and Probst 1985, 305 f.) The French mycologist Roger Heim identified the following fungi as nonda (Heim 1972; Heim and Wasson 1965): Boletus (Boletaceae) This genus includes the delicious porcini mushroom or king bolete (Boletus edulis Bull.: Fr.), as well as Boletus luridus Schaeff.: Fr., which is toxic when taken in combination with alcohol, and the very toxic Satan's mushroom (Boletus satanas Lenz). Boletus (Tubiporus) flammeus Heim Boletus (Tubiporus) kumaeus Heim Boletus (Tubiporus) manicus Heim Boletus (Tubiporus) nigerrimus Heim Boletus (Tubiporus) nigroviolaceus Heim Boletus (Tubiporus) reayi Heim Boletus manicus, the largest and supposedly most effective species of nonda, closely resembles the Satan's mushroom (Boletus satanas Lenz) of Europe. A powder produced by grinding the dried fruiting bodies is said to be able to induce colorful visions. Boletus manicus has been found to contain traces of indole alkaloids (Heim 1972, 173; Ott 1993, 422*). One Boletus species from the New Guinea highlands that is known as namanama was found to contain only amino acids and steroids, none of which is known to have any psychoactive effects (Gellert et al. 1973). Heimiella (Boletaceae) This genus is composed of just two or three species and is found only in Asia. It is characterized by long, fleshy stems and small caps. Heimiella anguiformis Heim nonda mbolbe Heimiella retispora Heim To date, no psychoactive compounds have been discovered in the genus Heimiella (Schultes and Hofmann 1992, 44*).

Russula (Russulaceae)-brittle caps Brittle caps are found throughout the world. Some species are coveted as culinary mushrooms, some are regarded as inedible, and some are attributed with a certain degree of toxicity. The taste can be used to estimate the toxicity of a specilnen. Species that have a mild taste are edible, while pungent varieties tend to be inedible or poisonous. Because the pungent taste is often not immediately apparent, a sample should be retained in the mouth for at least two minutes. Two species of Russula have been found to contain stearic acid. Some varieties also contain ibotenic acid and muscimol, both of which are also present in the fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) (Schultes and Hofmann 1992,55*). The following brittle caps have been described for Papua New Guinea and are classified as nonda: Russula agglutinata Heim------nonda mos Russula kirinea Heim--------kirin Russula maenadum Heim-------nondamos Russula nondorbingi Singer-------nonda bingi Russula pseudomaenadum Heim------nonda warn Nonda mushrooms from the genus Russula are said to induce the mushroom madness (ndaadl) in women but not in men (Heim 1972, 177). Self-experiments with nonda mushrooms (ingestion) conducted by various ethnographers and mushroom enthusiasts have not detected any type of psychoactive effects (D. McKenna 1995, 102*). It is of course possible that the nonda mushrooms contain substances that react only in the context of some specific chemical properties of the Kuma (cf. Nelson 1970). All of the information that is available indicates that the mushroom madness represents a traditional and learned pattern of behavior that is integrated into the Kuma culture in a complex manner. Mushroom madness is a cultural institution that makes it possible for individuals to ((flip out" on a temporary basis, thereby enabling them to undergo a social catharsis and enact a ritual drama (Heim and Wasson 1965). Literature Gellert, E., B. Halpern, and R. Rudzats. 1973. Amino acids and steroids of a New Guinea boletus. Phytochemistry 12:689-92. Heim, Roger. 1972. Mushroom madness in the Kuma. Human Biology in Oceania 1 (3): 170-78. Heim, Roger, and R. Gordon Wasson. 1964. Note preliminaire sur la folie fongique des Kuma. Comptes Rendus des Seances de l'Academie des Sciences (Paris) 258:1593-98. ---. 1965. The ((mushroom madness" of the Kuma. Botanical Museum Leaflets 21 (1): 1-36. Kertonegoro, Madi. 1991. Flug des Geistes: Eine Reise in das andere Bali. Basel: Sphinx. McDonald, A. 1980. Mushrooms and madness: Hallucinogenic mushrooms and some psychopharmacological implications. Canadian Journal ofPsychiatry 25:586-94. Nelson, Hal. 1970. On the etiology of ((mushroom madness" in highland New Guinea: Kaimbi culture and psychotropism. Paper presented at 69th annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association, San Diego, Calif., Nov. 18-20, 1970. Newmann, Philip. 1964. ((Wild man" behavior in a New Guinea highland community. American Anthropologist 66 (1): 1-19. Ratsch, Christian, and Heinz J. Probst. 1985. Namaste Yeti-Geschichten vom Wilden Mann. Munich: Knaur. Reay, Marie. 1959. The Kuma: Freedom and conformity in the New Guinea highlands. [Carlton]: Melbourne University Press. ---. 1960. ((Mushroom madness" in the New Guinea highlands. Oceania 21 (2): 137-39.