Kava notes

Family Piperaceae (Pepper Family) Forms and Subspecies There are numerous cultivars that can be distinguished on the basis of morphological and chemical differences. Botanically, however, few of these have been described as varieties (Halzl et al. 1993, 201). In contrast, the Polynesians differentiate among a large number of varieties. In Fiji, six are counted; they differ from one another in the height, length, and thickness of the knots on their stems and the color (from green to purple). Yagana leka, which is stocky but develops the best aroma, is particularly esteemed. On the island of Tahiti, fourteen varieties were once recognized and differed from one another solely in their inebriating qualities (Lewin 1886, 6). In Hawaii, a particular distinction is made with regard to the variety known by the name black awa, the stems of which are nearly black; in addition, the following forms are also named: apu, kau la'au, ke'ake'a, kuaea (= nene), kumakua, liwa, makea, mamaka, mamienie, ma'i, makilana, papa, papa ele'ele, and papa kea (Singh 1992, 20). Twenty-one varieties are recognized on the Marquesas Islands and five in Papua New Guinea, and Vanuatu has been reported to have seventy-two different cultivars (Lebot and Cabalion 1988). The existence of such variety may be the reason for the rather different experiences with kava drinks in the different regions. Recently, completely new and previously unknown varieties are said to have been discovered on Vanuatu (Kilham 1996). Synonyms Macropiper latifalium Miq. Macropiper methysticum (G. Forst.) Hook. et Arnott Macropiper methysticum Miq. Piper decumanum Opitz Piper inebrians Bertero Piper inebrians Soland. Folk Names Agona, angona, angooner, ava, ava-ava, awa, 'awa (Hawaiian), awa-awa, cava, gea, gi, intoxicating pepper, kava, kava-kava, kawa, kawa-kawa, kawa pepper, kawapfeffer, malohu, maluk, meruk, milik, poivre enivrant, rauschpfeffer, sakau, wati, yagona, yakona,yangona,yaona, yaqona, yaquona The Polynesian word awa or kava means "bitter;' "pungent;' "sour;' or "sourish"; yangana (and its derivatives) means "drink" as well as "bitter" and, thus, "bitter drink" (Singh 1992, 15). In most cases, the names given to the plant and to the drink prepared from it are identical. Piper methysticum does not grow on Rennel Island (southern Solomon Islands), and no drink made from the plant is used there. However, a drink made there from coconuts (Cocos nucifera) is called, strangely enough, kava kava ngangi (Singh 1992, 16). History Kava is the most important psychoactive agent in Oceania (Lebot et al. 1992). On most of the islands of Polynesia, the use and cultivation of the plant appears to have spread along with the settlement of the islands. Both the plant and kava drinking have also spread into many of the islands of Melanesia (Singh 1992, 15). It has been conjectured that Polynesians colonized Easter Island (Rapa Nui) in the third or fourth century because a chief was "led" there by a kava-induced vision (Ripinsky-Naxon 1989,221*). The ethnologist R. W. Williamson has worked out strong resemblances between the Vedic soma ritual and the Polynesian kava ceremonies and has conjectured that at least the ritual of kava spread from India to Oceania. There, the kava pepper was used as a substitute for the Indian soma plant (Williamson 1939). Another ethnologist has argued that Polynesia was originally settled by two cultures, which on the basis of their "drug" consumption he called the betel people and the kava people. Even today, the areas in which betel is chewed and those in which kava is preferred can be geographically clearly distinguished (Churchill 1916). The custom of chewing betel quids only rarely overlaps with that of drinking kava. The first Europeans to become acquainted with kava were Captain James Cook (1727-1779) and his fellow travelers. In 1777, Johann Georg Forster (1754-1794), who accompanied Cook, provided the first botanical description of the plant and the associated ceremony (Vonarburg 1996, 57). The report of Cook's journey (1784) noted that "when several of the members of the ship's crew partook of the drink, it was observed that it induced an effect like that of a strong dose of an alcoholic drink or even more a stupefaction such as produced by opium [cf. Papaver somniferum]. The effects of kava have also been compared to those of wild lettuce [cf. Lactuca virosa] and those of hashish [cf. Cannabis indica]" (Lewin 1886,44). Many islanders used or use kava as an everyday beverage, just as tea (Camellia sinensis) or coffee (Coffea arabica) is consumed in other parts of the world (Gajdusek 1967; Lewin 1886, 18). There are official kava bars in Fiji and on other islands. On many South Sea islands, the alcohol that was introduced by missionaries has supplanted the use of kava and caused substantial devastation to the indigenous cultures. Fortunately, this situation has seen some reversal in recent decades, as an increase in ethnic identity has given new life to traditional values. As a result, large amounts of kava are once again being consumed in many places, and this has helped to successfully counteract the growth of alcoholism. Of all of the psychoactive plants that have been introduced into Australia, kava appears to have acquired the greatest significance among the Aborigines. Since 1980, kava drinking has been part of the culture of the Northern Territory (Lebot et al. 1992, 72, 199-202). Some Aborigines use it to treat alcoholism, while others drink such high overdoses of kava that new problems have arisen (Prescott and McCall 1988; Singh 1992, 17). Kava was first used therapeutically in Europe around 1820. It was initially used primarily in the treatment of venereal diseases (Lewin 1886, 17). The first pharmacognostic and pharmacological studies were carried out at the close of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries (Lewin 1886; Penaud 1908). Today, kava is a popular "natural tranquilizer" (Vonarburg 1996,61). Distribution The original home of kava is unknown; it is occasionally found in New Guinea and on the New Hebrides. Wild plants are unknown, although stands of plants that have become wild are encountered from place to place. Since all of the cultivars are sterile, the plant can have spread only through human activity. It may have developed from Piper wichmannii C. DC. Prehistoric Polynesians brought the plant to Hawaii (= Sandwich Islands) at a very early date. Once there, it spread quickly (Krauss 1981,2*). The plant does not occur in New Zealand (cf. Macropiper excelsum) or on Easter Island (Whistler 1992a, 185). Cultivation The plant is propagated from cuttings (approximately 15 to 20 cm long) taken from the lower stems or from young stems separated from the rootstock (also called a stump) when the root is harvested. The new plant develops shoots after a short growth period. The plant grows into a substantial shrub and is ready to be harvested after five to six years at the most. Kava plantations are fertilized almost exclusively with ash from wood and are well tended: The cultivation of kava requires great care, skill, and diligence. The soil is often subjected to treatment with the rake for this purpose, freed of weeds and fertilized with lime from shells and coral. ... In areas where the plant is still cultivated, it is a question of honor for every family to grow good kava. Before the arrival of the missionaries, the kava fields were divided into three parts. The best was given to the gods that can cause harm-it was taboo, i.e., sacrosanct, the second to the atuas, the gods of sleep, and the third was the family's portion. . . . It was preferred to locate the plantations in places that were raised, on cliffs, and dry. But when there was no other way, one could also find the plants in lower and wetter valleys at the margins of rivers. The plants that develop here do not taste as well and are less aromatic than the former. The plantations are reminiscent of young fig plantations. (Lewin 1886, 13) The most important commercial areas for growing kava are now found in Samoa, Fiji, and Vanuatu. Appearance This bushy, evergreen shrub usually grows to a height of about 2 meters, although it can grow to a height of more than 5 meters. The light green, alternate, heart-shaped leaves can grow as long as 30 cm. The greenish white male inflorescences can attain a length of up to 6 cm and form in spikes attached at the leafaxils; female flowers are unknown (Whistler 1992a, 185). The fruits are said to form one-seeded berries (Lewin 1886). The juicy root (stump) can grow very large, develop multiple branches, and weigh from 2 to 10 kilos. Piper methysticum is easily confused with similar Piper species (e.g., Piper tutuilae C. DC.), which are also called kava or ava (Uhe 1974,23*). The closely related species Piper puberulum (Benth.) Benth. var. glabrum (C. DC.) A.C. Sm. [syn. Macropiper puberulum Benth., Piper macgillivrayi C. DC. ex Seem.], which is very common in Tonga, is similar in appearance (although it has red inflorescences) and is known as kavakava'uli or kavakava'ulie, and on Niue even as kavakava, but it is not used for psychoactive purposes (Weiner 1971, 443; Whistler 1992b, 73 f.; Whistler 1992a, 169). Another quite similar species is Piper latifolium Forst. (also known as bastard kava; Lewin 1886, 8), which grows on the Marquesas. On the Society Islands, P. latifolium is known as avavahai. Any psychoactive use of this plant is unknown (Steinmetz 1973,6). The kava plant is so similar to the American species Piper auritum that almost the only way to distinguish the two species is by the scent of their leaves. Steinmetz reported a Caribbean species that is also very similar (Piper plantagineum Schlecht.) and that the natives of the West Indies or Mexico allegedly once used in a similar manner to kava (Steinmetz 1973,6). Psychoactive Material - Root (rhizome, kava-kava rhizome, kava-kava rootstock, kava pepper root, piperis methystici rhizoma, radix kava-kava, rhizoma kava-kava, rhizoma kavae, waka); usually the peeled stump that has been freed of small roots The dried plant material must be stored away from light. The stump loses some 600/0 of its moisture as it dries. The kava from Vanuatu is especially high in quality. - Fresh leaves - Fresh or dried stems (lewana) Preparation and Dosage The freshly dug root is freed of its small secondary roots, peeled and chopped, and then prepared while either fresh or dried. Kavains (kavapyrones) are not easily soluble in water but do dissolve well in alcohol. For this reason, it is best to prepare an alcohol tincture of the stump. In the pharmaceutical industry, the dried root is used to obtain alcohol/water or acetone extracts with 94% ethanol and 1% ethylmethylketone. The yield, or kavapyrone content, is greatest in a pure alcohol extract (31.6 to 35.40/0) and makes up some 30% in alcohol/water mixtures (cf. Holzi et al. 1993, 203). Sixty to 120 mg of kavapyrones is listed as a medicinal dosage (the amount can vary considerably depending upon the preparation); in clinical studies, 200 to 300 mg were administered daily for a period of several days. In spite of the daily use by countless numbers of PolYnesians, the pharmaceuticalliterature warns against using the plant for a period exceeding three months. Pregnant women and people with endogenous psychoses should also avoid kava (Holzi et al. 1993,210). The traditional production of the refreshing and inebriating kava drink (also known as ava, kavakava, sakau, wati, viti grog, and fiji grog) is identical on almost all of the islands. Normally, the fresh roots are peeled and then chewed by young men (less frequently by girls or young women) for about ten minutes and insalivated. This process can increase the volume of the root pieces considerably. The chewed material is then mixed with water in special sacred vessels (kava bowls, tanoo, kanoa) made from the hard wood of vesi (Intsia bijuga [Colebr.] O. Ktze. [syn. Afzelia bijuga A. Gray]; Leguminosae [Caesalpiniaceae]) and "fermented" shortly before use. (In the early literature, one could occasionally read that the drink was allowed to "ferment"; this information, however, appears to be based on an error; Lewin 1886, 24.) The resulting milky drink is filtered through a sieve made from the inner bark of Hibiscus tiliaceus L. (vau, fau) or from coconut fibers (Cocos nucifera) and poured into drinking bowls. The drink is consumed only while fresh, as it becomes flat and unappetizing if allowed to stand for too long (Steinmetz 1973, 13 ff.). The finished kava drink has a dark, sometimes brown, yellow, or gray cloudy color and a characteristic taste that can differ in aroma but may also be soaplike, very bitter, or astringent. The drink induces an anesthesia on the surface of the mouth similar to that produced by coca (cf. Erythroxylum coca). In Fiji, the kava drink was once prepared not by chewing (mama) the root but by grating it with large mushroom corals (a practice that presumably was also found in other places) (Ford 1967, 165). In Hawaii, kava was made using coconut milk (cf. Cocos nucifera) instead of water (Krauss 1981, 2*). In addition, Hawaiian Huna sorcerers (kahunas) would boil a poisonous drink from roots collected on days of heavy rain together with the leaves of Tephrosia piscatoria [syn. Theophrosia purpurea] Daphne indica, and a Lagenaria species (Kepler 1983; McBride 1988; cf. also Singh 1992, 15). Typically, each person drinks one to four coconut shells' worth of kava drink (= 0.5 to 2.0 liters) at the kava ceremonies. Many Polynesians drink a couple of bowls of freshly prepared kava every day. Some "enthusiastic kava drinkers consume the drink 6 to 8 times a day" (Lewin 1886, 19). The old notion that kava acquires its inebriating or psychoactive effects only after it has been "fermented" (insalivated) has been clearly refuted (Schmidt 1994, 376 f.). However, the insalivation does appear to enable the kavapyrones (which do not easily dissolve in water) to release in the emulsion and thus be absorbed when the fresh beverage is consumed. The inebriating (psychoactive) effects become apparent only after the consumption of several liters: "A certain numbness appears only after the ingestion of some 9 liters of the kava drink" (Vonarburg 1996, 58). Chronic consumption of very high doses (13 liters per day, corresponding to approximately 310 to 440 g of dried rootstock) can lead to toxic effects (rash, hair loss, yellow coloration of the skin, reddening of the eyes, loss of appetite, et cetera) (Halzl et al. 1993,211). Daily dosages of 4 liters or less will not induce these symptoms or will do so only extremely rarely. The traditional methods of preparation use some 100 g of dried plant material per 100 ml of water, corresponding to about 70 mg of kavapyrones, oftentimes more (Halzl et al. 1993, 203). The lethal dosage for humans is unknown. In mice, the LDso is 1,500 mg of kavapyrones per kilogram of body weight (Halzl et al. 1993,212). The inebriating effects of kava can also result from or be potentiated by various additives: But kava can also be used alone and without any preparation. A piece of the fresh rootstock about as long and as thick as a finger is a good dosage for inducing psychoactive effects. It should be chewed well and then swallowed. The effects of kava appear to be potentiated by the addition of Cannabis. A tonic can be prepared by emulsifying equal parts of ground kava root and lecithin in a blender. Kava roots are sometimes used as an ingredient in betel quids. It is possible that kava roots and honey may be used to brew a mead whose effects are more inebriating than those of a cold-water extract of chewed roots. Whether the inebriating beverage known as keu was indeed made from Piper methysticum, as has been suggested, is unknown. In the Society Islands, juice from the root of Piper tristachyon was formerly used to "ferment" an inebriating beverage known as ava ava (von Reis Altschul 1975, 45*). Kava Additives Other substances are occasionally added to the kava drink (Holmes 1967, 107; Lewin 1886,23; Singh 1992,23): <tbody> </tbody> Chili pods Capsicum spp. PolYnesia Kava leaves Piper methysticum New Guinea Coconut milk Cocos nucifera Hawaii Thorn apple seeds Datura metel Fiji Yagoyagona (extract) Piper puberulum Fiji Ritual Use The traditional ritual uses of kava include the kava ceremonies as well as the use of the plant for magical purposes. The more original kava ceremonies are especially well documented in the ethnographic literature and still exist, in the same or at least a similar form, in Fiji, Samoa, and Vanuatu (Lebot et al. 1992; Singh 1992). Kava ceremonies range from formal to informal in nature. They can function as a greeting for guests, as a part of tribal deliberations, and as a part of the relaxing, social drinking rounds that take place in the evenings. The basic pattern of the ceremonies is always the same. First, the drink is prepared, accompanied by prayers and songs. Then the participants sit either in two groups, one facing the other, or in a circle. The priest, chief, politician, or host distributes equal portions of the drink to all of the participants. The ceremony, which is usually accompanied by collective singing, ends after a number of rounds. At the conclusion, the location at which the ceremony has taken place, the temple, and the ceremonial objects are all cleansed. Sometimes dancing accompanies the ceremony (Singh 1992). In some places, only men are allowed to take part in the kava ceremonies, while on other islands everyone can drink. The women of Tonga once had their own drinking societies (Lewin 1886,20). Some initiation ceremonies, such as the initiation of girls into the sacred hula dances, also involve kava. On Niue, it was once only the priests who drank kava, which they did to obtain visions (Singh 1992, 16). Any person who saw the shark-shaped sea god Sekatoa in the water would have to ceremonially purify himself with a kava drink (Singh 1992, 28). At their ceremonies or libations, the Samoans-through their chief-ask the gods for health, long life, a good harvest, and success in war. In Samoa, the largest roots are called lupesina ("great respect"); they are presented as gifts to people of respect but are not consumed (Cox and O'Rourke 1987,454). Kava roots were or are placed as offerings in temples and shrines or hung together with small branches of Waltheria americana. Kava roots also are placed on the graves of deceased family members as a last farewell. Perhaps this should be seen in the context of certain mythological traditions, according to which the first kava plant grew upon the grave of a Tongan leper. On the Marquesas Islands, it is believed that the plant was born as a child of the god Atea, who provides food, sends the rain, is the lord of the farmers, and was transformed into the inebriating plant. One story told in Tonga describes how the cooked daughter of the host was placed before the great chief Loua during a feast. When he smelled the roast, he had the well-done flesh buried. The first kava plant grew from the grave. In Vanuatu, it is said that an old man observed a rabbit chewing on a kava root. After watching this on several occasions, he tried the root himself and invented the kava drink (Singh 1992, 18 f.). On the islands of Vanuatu and other islands of the South Pacific, kava is used in magic, especially magic intended to harm others (Singh 1992, 29). The practice is known as elioro in Vanuatu and is used to send out disease or death to a specific person. The sorcerer buries a "deadly object"usually a kava root upon which incantations have been uttered or a blood-filled bamboo tube-at a spot where it is assumed that the intended victim will pass by. By passing or, even better, walking over the spot, the unsuspecting victim assimilates the harmful magic and then becomes ill or dies (Ludvigson 1985, 56). In contrast, in Hawaii kava is regarded as a means for removing magic (Singh 1992, 15).

Artifacts The majority of the artifacts associated with kava are those used in its preparation and consumption (shells, bowls, mortars, drinking vessels). The large, round wooden bowls used in preparing kava frequently feature carved legs (often depictions of people). Strings made of coconut fiber are used to attach cowrie shells (Cypraea moneta 1., Cypraea annulus 1.) to the kava bowls of the chiefs for magical protection. In Samoa, the wa ni tanoa, "king's vessel;' was sometimes decorated with the renowned gold cowrie (Cypraea aurantium Gmelin), the symbol of the ruler's office (Ford 1967, 166, 167). The drinking vessels of Fiji (m'bilo, bilo ni yagona, ipu'ava, 'apu 'awa) are made from halves of coconut shells (Cocos nucifera) to which strings of coconut fibers are sometimes attached. The resinous remnants of the drink impart a glasslike finish to these coconut shells after they have been used enough times. This layer is sometimes scraped off and ingested as an especially potent form of kava (Lewin 1886, 27; Singh 1992, 26). In Tonga, banana leaves are woven together to make single-use kava cups. On the Hawaiian and other Polynesian islands, ritual kava-drinking vessels are made from calabash gourds (Lagenaria spp.) (Dodge 1995). In Fiji and Samoa, there are numerous kava songs that are sung at ceremonies, when greeting people, when making kava, and on other occasions. Some of these songs have been published in ethnomusical recordings (e.g., Unique Fiji: The Nakamakama Villagers in Mekes and Songs, OlYmpic Records no. OL-6159, 1979). One psychedelic rock band from England took its name-Kava Kava-from that of the inebriating plant. The plant can also be seen in the paintings of some Hawaiian and Polynesian artists.Medicinal Use In Samoa, kava is regarded as an aphrodisiac, tonic, and stimulant. The rootstock is used to treat gonorrhea and elephantiasis (Uhe 1974, 23*; Weiner 1971, 443). The plant is widely used as an internal and external analgesic (Whistler 1992a, 186). In Hawaii, restless and feverish children are given in the morning and in the evening kava roots that their mothers have prechewed (Krauss 1981,2*). In Tonga, an infusion of crushed yellow (semiwilted) leaves is administered to crying children as a calmative (Weiner 1971,443). In New Caledonia, the fresh leaves are chewed for bronchitis (Weiner 1971, 443); in Tonga, the fresh leaves are rubbed onto the stings of giant centipedes, insects, and poisonous fish (Whistler 1992b, 73). In Oceania, kava is used as an antidote for poisoning by strychnine or Strychnos nuxvomica (Pfeiffer et a1. 1967, 155; Schmidt 1994, 474), a traditional use whose effectiveness has been pharmacologically verified (Singh 1992,39). In Papua New Guinea, great quantities of kava are chewed and swallowed to induce a kind of numbness for painful tattooing procedures (Steinmetz 1973,23). In Western phytotherapy, kava preparations are used to treat states of nervous anxiety, tension, and restlessness (H6lzl et aL 1993, 210; Schmidt 1994) and-according to the claims of certain pill manufacturers-to increase concentration and performance (Hansel and Woelck 1995). Preparations in which kava is combined with St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum 1.) are used as mild antidepressants (cf. Becker 1994, 3*). The essence or mother tincture (Piper methysticum hom. HAB34, Piper methysticum hom. HPUS88) is used in homeopathy for such conditions as states of excitation and exhaustion (Holzi et al. 1993,212). Constituents Kavalactones (= kava pyrones, kavapyrones, (Xpyrones, kavains) occur in all parts of the plant, usually totaling a concentration of over 50/0, with 1.80/0 kavain, 1.2% methysticin (= kavahine, kavakin, kavatin, kanakin), 10/0 demethoxy-yangonin, 1% yangonin, 0.60/0 dihydrokavain, 0.50/0 dihydromethysticin, and traces of dihydrokavain5- 01, 11,12-dimethoxyhydrokavain, II-hydroxy12- methoxykavain, II-methoxy-nor-yangonin, 11-methoxy-yangonin, and the two ethylketones cinnamoylacetone and methylendioxy-3,4-cinnamoylidenacetone (Schulgin 1973; Young et al. 1966). The plant has been found to contain amides (2-methoxy cinnamic acid pyrrolidide, cinnamic acid pyrrolidide), chalcones (flavokavin A and B), and free and aromatic acids (anisic acid, benzoic acid, capronic acid, hydroxy cinnamic acid, and derivatives) (Holzl et al. 1993, 202; Klohs 1967). A pale yellow essential oil has also been described (Lewin 1886,30). The leaves contain 0.71 0/0 transient pipermethysticin (an alkaloid); this compound is found in the stems in lower concentrations but not in the roots (Cox and O'Rourke 1987, 454). Dihydrokavain, dihydromethysticin, and yangonin are present in the stems. Trace amounts of the substance cepharadione A were discovered in the roots (according to the DAB supplemental volume 6). This substance is also found in other Piper species (Piper spp.) (Jaggy and Achenbach 1992). Kavapyrones are chemically related to longistylines (cf. Lonchocarpus violaceus, balche'). Effects Potent psychoactive effects of the local drink have been reported particularly for Pohnpei (Ponape) (Hambruch 1917; Thurnwald 1908). It is said that after several rounds, the participants in the drinking ritual leave their bodies and are able to glide over the tropical island world in a disembodied state and journey to the heavens, to the home of the kava plant. They experience sensations of fraternization and unity with their environment as well as erotic visions. These and similar statements in the older literature, according to which kava may have hallucinogenic effects, have been cast in serious doubt by many authors who have had numerous experiences of their own (Cox and O'Rourke 1987, 454). The legendary hallucinogenic effect has occasionally been attributed to the additives that may be used (in particular Datura metel; see above). Frequent mention is made of euphoric effects that 'begin shortly after the consumption of larger amounts and subside some two to three hours later (Roth et al. 1994, 572*). There is general agreement among both the authors and the kava consumers alike that the drink quenches thirst better than beer, has mild stimulating and invigorating effects that revitalize the body after strenuous exertion, clears the head, and stimulates the appetite. In contrast, the aphrodisiac or anaphrodisiac effects are the subject of debate (Lewin 1886; Steinmetz 1973). "Too, kava is a means of maintaining or enhancing intimacy" (Gregory 1995,44). Louis Lewin summarized the reported psychoactive effects in the following way: Following not too large amounts, a sensation of happy lightheartedness, comfort, and satisfaction appears without any physical or mental excitation. At first, speaking is easy and free and the vision and hearing are more acute for finer impressions. The agent reveals a calming power. The drinkers never become angry, mad, quarrelsome, or paralyzed as with alcohol, which the Fiji Islanders also especially esteem as an advantage of this beverage. The natives and the whites regard it as a sedative in cases of accidents. Both consciousness and the rational faculties remain intact. When somewhat larger quantities are consumed, then the limbs become limp; the muscle power no longer appears to be under the jurisdiction and control of the will; walking becomes slower and more unsteady; the people appear as if half-drunk; one feels the need to lie down. The eye sees objects that are present but does not want to and cannot fix upon them on command, just as the ear perceives without being able or willing to give an account of that which is being heard. An overpowering tiredness and a need to sleep that controls every sensation becomes apparent in the drinker; he becomes somnolent and finally falls asleep. Some Europeans have observed this power of kava to lame the senses and ultimately lead to sleep, which is like magic, on their own selves. Often, it merely produces a torpid/somnolent state accompanied by disconnected dreams and, according to some reports, by erotic visions as well. (Lewin 1886,44 f.) Numerous pharmacological studies have demonstrated that the psychoactive effects of kava are due to the kavapyrones; moreover, they are not caused by one isolated substance but instead appear to be due to the mixture (Meyer 1967, 140). In experiments with mice, extracts have produced strong sedative effects (Holzl et al. 1993, 203): Like meprobamat or benzodiazepine [cf. diazepam], the kavapyrones are capable of lowering the excitability of the limbic system, whereby the inhibition of the activity of the limbic system is regarded as an expression of a suppression of emotional excitability and an improvement in the mood. (Holzi et al. 1993, 204) Muscle-relaxing, antispasmodic, analgesic, local anesthetic, and nerve-protecting effects have all been pharmacologically demonstrated. The kavapyrones also cause a prolongation or deepening of anesthesia (induced, e.g., by chloroform, ether, laughing gas, or barbiturates), for which methysticin has the strongest synergistic effects. Kava extracts have antagonistic effects on dopamine, apomorphine, and amphetamine (cf. ephedrine) (Holzi et al. 1993, 205; Meyer 1976). Kava also potentiates the effects of alcohol (e.g., the duration of sleep following inebriation; cf. Zubke 1997). The local anesthetic effects are very similar to those of cocaine, procaine, and lidocaine, and the duration of effects is similar (Halzl et al. 1993, 206; Meyer and May 1964; Singh 1992, 40). There is some evidence suggesting that the kavapyrones bind to the GABA and/or benzodiazepine receptors ([3H]-GABA bond, [3H]diazepam bond), thereby exhibiting an affinity similar to that of muscimol and diazepam (Halzl et al. 1992). Human pharmacological studies on healthy subjects using 210 mg or even 300 to 600 mg of kavapyrones per day have demonstrated that the quality of sleep is improved, anxiety states are dissipated, and information processing in the brain is improved, while reaction times are unaffected (Halzl et al. 1993, 207; Hansel and Kammerer 1996). Often the desired effects do not become apparent until after several days of regular consumption (Schmidt 1994, 376). In rare instances, kava use may result in mild allergic reactions. However, "there are no indications of physical and/or psychological dependency" (Halzl et al. 1993,210). It has frequently been reported that kava can induce marijuana-like effects (cf. Cannabis indica), but that these effects are very subtle and are perceived only following repeated ingestion of the substance (Miller 1985,59*; Zubke 1997). Commercial Forms and Regulations Kava, both raw and in its various preparations, is available without restriction throughout the world (even in herb shops, health food stores, supermarkets, et cetera). Many South Pacific islands have bars in which no alcohol is served but various preparations of kava are. Numerous preparations and products (capsules, tablets, coated tablets, solutions, tinctures) are available in European and Western markets, including capsules containing kava extracts and the oil of St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum 1.; cf. Becker 1994*) for treating stress and capsules with extracts of kava and valerian (Valeriana officinalis) for relaxation. Each of the Antares® 120 tablets contains 120 mg of kavapyrones; these thus have one of the highest concentrations of all commercial forms (Schmidt 1994, 376). Each capsule of the psychopharmacological agent known as Neuronika contains 200 mg of kavain (cf. Kretschmer 1970). Many products contain only 10 mg of kavapyrones in each pill. Literature See also the entries for Piper auritum, Piper betle, Piper spp., Macropiper excelsum, keu, and betel quids. Brunton, R. 1989. The abandoned narcotic: Kava and cultural instability in Melanesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Buckley, Joseph P., Angelo R. Furgiuele, and Maureen J. O'Hara. 1967. Pharmacology of kava. In Ethnopharmacologic search for psychoactive drugs, ed. D. Efron, 141-51. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Churchill, W. 1916. Sissano: Movements ofmigration within and through Melanesia. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution. (See pages 124-44.) Cox, Paul Alan, and Lisa O'Rourke. 1987. Kava (Piper methysticum, Piperaceae). Economic Botany 41:452-54. Dodge, Ernest 5.1995. Hawaiian and other Polynesian gourds. Honolulu: Ku Pa'a Publishing. Ford, Clellan S. 1967. Ethnographical aspects of kava. In Ethnopharmacologic search for psychoactive drugs, ed. D. Efron, 162-73. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Gajdusek, D. Carleton. 1967. Recent observations on the use of kava in the New Hebrides. In Ethnopharmacologic search for psychoactive drugs, ed. D. Efron, 119-25. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Garner, Leon E, and Jeremy D. Klinger. 1985. Some visual effects caused by the beverage kava. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 13 (3): 307-11. Gregory, Robert J. 1995. Reflections on the kava (Piper methysticum, Forst.) experience. Integration 6:41-44. Hambruch, P. 1917. Die Kawa auf Ponape. Studien und Forschungen zur Menschen- und Volkerkunde 14:107-15. Hansel, R. and H. U. Beiersdorff. 1959. Zur Kenntnis der sedativen Prinzipien des Kava-Rhizoms. Arzneimittel-Forschung 9:581-85. Hansel, Rudolf, and Susanne Kammerer. 1996. Kavakava, Basel: Aesopus. Hansel, Rudolf, and Helmut Woelck. 1995. Spektrum Kava-Kava. 2nd ed. Arzneimitteltherapie heute. Basel: Aesopus. Holmes, Lowell D. 1967. The function of kava in modern Samoan culture. In Ethnopharmacologic search for psychoactive drugs, ed. D. Efron, 107-18. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Halzl, Josef, S. Wiltrud Juretzek, and Elisabeth StahlBiskup. 1993. Piper. In Hagers Handbuch der pharmazeutischen Praxis, 5th ed., 5:52-59. Berlin: Springer. Hurni, Walter. 1997. Kava-Geschenk der Gatter. NatUrlich 17 (II): 65-68. Jaggy, H., and H. Achenbach. 1992. Cepharadione A from Piper methysticum. Planta Medica 58: Ill. Keller, E, and Murle W. Klohs. 1963. A review of the chemistry and pharmacology of the constituents of Piper methysticum. Lloydia 26:1-15. Kepler, Angela Kay. 1983. Hawaiian heritage plants. Honolulu: Oriental. Kilham, Chris. 1996. Kava: Medicine hunting in paradise. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street Press. Klohs, Murle W. 1967. Chemistry of kava. In Ethnopharmacologic search for psychoactive drugs, ed. D. Efron, 126-32. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Koch, Gerd. 1981. Kawa in Polynesien. In Rausch und Realitiit, ed. G. Valger, 1:194-99. Cologne: Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum fiir Valkerkunde. Kretschmer, Wolfgang. 1970. Kavain als Psychopharmakon. M unchener Medizinische Wochenschrift 112 (4): 154-58. Lebot, Vincent, and P. Cabalion. 1988. Kavas of Vanuatu: Cultivars ofPiper methysticum Forst. Technical Paper no. 195. Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission. Lebot, Vincent, Mark Merlin, and Lamont Lindstrom. 1992. Kava: The Pacific drug. New Haven, Conn., and London: Yale University Press. (Cf. book review by John Baker in Yearbook for Ethnomedicine and the Study ofConsciousness, 1994 (3): 355 f. Berlin: VWB. Lewin, Louis. 1886. Ober Piper methysticum (Kawa). Berlin: August Hirschfeld. Ludvigson, Tomas. 1985. Healing in central Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu. In Healing practices in the South Pacific, ed. Claire D. E Parsons, 51-64. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press (The Institute for Polynesian Studies). McBride, 1. R. 1988. Practical folk medicine of Hawaii. Hilo: Petroglyph. Meyer, Hans J. 1967. Pharmacology of kava. In Ethnopharmacologic search for psychoactive drugs, ed. D. Efron, 133-40. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Meyer, Hans J., and H. U. May. 1964. Lokalanasthetische Eigenschaften natiirlicher Kawa-Pyrone. Klinische Wochenschrift 42:407. Penaud, A. 1908. Le kawa-kawa. Bordeaux: These de doctorat. Pfeiffer, Carl C., Henry B. Murphree, and Leonide Goldstein. 1967. Effect of kava in normal subjects and patients. In Ethnopharmacologic search for psychoactive drugs, ed. D. Efron, 155-61. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Prescott, J., and G. McCall, eds. 1988. Kava: Use and abuse in Australia and the South Pacific. Monograph no. 5. Sydney: University of New South Wales, National Drug and Alcohol Research Center. Schmidt, Michael. 1994. Kava-Kava: Heilpflanze aus der Siidsee. PTA heute 8 (5): 374-78. Shulgin, Alexander T. 1973. The narcotic pepper: The chemistry and pharmacology of Piper methysticum and related species. Bulletin of Narcotics 25:59-74. Singh, Yadhu N. 1983. Effects of kava on neuromuscular transmission and muscle contractility. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 7:267-76. ---. 1986. Kava: A bibliography. Suva, Fiji: University of the South Pacific, Pacific Information Centre. ---. 1992. Kava: An overview. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 37:13-45. (Contains an excellent bibliography that provides a good basis for further research.) Steinmetz, E. E 1973. Kava-kava: Famous drug plant ofthe South Sea islands. San Francisco: Level Press. Thurnwald, Richard. 1908. Nachrichten aus Nissau und von den Karolinen. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 40:106-15. Vonarburg, Bruno. 1996. Kava-Kava stellt sie wieder auf die Beine. NatUrlich 3/96:57-61. Weiner, Michael A. 1971. Ethnomedicine in Tonga. Economic Botany 25:423-50. Whistler, W. Arthur. 1992a. Polynesian herbal medicine. Hawaii: National Tropical Botanical Gardens. ---. 1992b. Tongan herbal medicine. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Williamson, R. W. 1939. Essays in Polynesian ethnology. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. (See pages 51-112, 274-75.) Young, Richard 1., John W. Hylin, Donald 1. Plucknett, Y. Kawano, and Roy T. Nakayama. 1966. Analysis for kavapyrones in extracts of Piper methysticum. Phytochemistry 5:795-98. Z[ubke] ,A[chim]. 1997. Kava: Die Siidseedroge. Hanjblatt4 (28): 29-31.