Morphine

Other Names 4,5a-epoxy-17-methyl-7-morphinen-3,6a-diol, morfina, morphin, morphinium, morphium Substance type: opium alkaloid Sometime around 1803 and 1804, Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Serturner (1783-1841), a pharmacist's assistant, first isolated morphine as the "sleep-inducing principle" in opium (cf. Papaver somniferum, opium alkaloids). This achievement was the most important "quantum leap" in the history of pharmacology and represents the beginning of the true chemical investigation of plants. Today, the Serturner Medal is still awarded for exceptional work in pharmaceutics. Morphine may also be present in Papaver decaisnei Hochst., Papaver dubium 1. [syn. Papaver modestum Jordan, Papaver obtusifolium Desf.], and Papaver hybridum 1. (Slavik and Slavikova 1980). Whether morphine occurs in Argemone mexicana and other Papaver species (Papaver spp.) is doubtful, while the idea that hops (Humulus lupulus) contains morphine is a figment of someone's imagination. Tiny traces of the substance have been found in hay and lettuce (cf. Lactuca virosa) (Amann and Zenk 1996, 19). Morphine has also been detected in the skin of Bufo marinus toads (cf. bufotenine) (Amann and Zenk 1996, 18). Since the time when morphine was first detected in breast milk, cow's milk, and human cerebrospinal fluid, it has been known that it is a natural endogenous neurotransmitter in higher vertebrates, including humans (Amann and Zenk 1996; Cardinale et al. 1987; Hazum et al. 1981). Morphine does not bind well to the encephalin receptors (to which the endorphins dock) but docks at the specific morphine (m) receptors (Hazum et al. 1981). It is most likely biosynthesized in the body from dopamine (Brossi 1991). Another closely related substance, codeine, is also endogenous in humans (Cardinale et al. 1987). Morphine is the best and strongest natural painkiller known. Its efficaciousness is surpassed only by that of the synthetic morphine analogs (heroin, fentanyl). Morphine is particularly well suited for treating chronic pain, such as in cancer therapy (Amann and Zenk 1996; Melzack 1991). Endogenous morphine constitutes the body's own pain medication: Studies on rats have shown that among animals who were suffering from arthritis, morphine concentrations in the spinal cord and urine were significantly elevated. Because of this, it is assumed today that the organism produces increased amounts of morphine in certain disease states. Consequently, endogenous morphine may serve to regulate pain in the organism. Morphine exists in animal and human tissue and is excreted in significant amounts in the urine. (Amann and Zenk 1996,24) About 30 mg orally represents an effective dosage. Habitual morphine users may use as much as 1 g per day (Hirschfeld and Linsert 1930,255*): It is known that opium eaters experience a significant increase in sexual functions during the initial period of opium consumption. During opium inebriation, erotic images appear and may even include extraordinary sexual fantasies.... The effects of morphine are similar, where an increase in sexual excitability was observed following several weeks of taking 0.03 to 0.06 g per day. (Max Marcuse, 1923, Handworterbuch der Sexualwissenschaft [Handbook of Sexual Sciences] ) When used for sedation, in anesthesia, and for calming and antispasmodic purposes, pharmaceutical preparations of morphine hydrochloride and atropine sulfate or morphine hydrochloride and scopolamine hydrobromide are used-the final reminders of the recipes for the former soporific sponges. During the Golden Twenties, the use of morphine in Berlin society circles was depicted in numerous pictures and illustrations (e.g., by Paul Kamm) that appeared in magazines. These illustrations played a great role in creating the stereotype of the "Morphinist" (cf. Papaver somniferum), who also became the object of literary treatments (Bulgaka 1971; Mac From 1931). Even the life story of the man who first discovered the substance, Friedrich Wilhelm Sertiirner, became the subject of a novel (Schumann-Ingolstadt n.d.). Heroin, a derivative of morphine, has also inspired a rich body of literature. One of the first of this was the novel Heroin, by Rudolf Brunngraber (1952*), which dealt with the role of heroin in Egypt during the Golden Twenties. Morphine was and still is a popular inebriant in the music scene (particularly that of jazz and rock). "Sister Morphine," a song by the Rolling Stones (Sticky Fingers, Virgin Records, 1971), is arguably the most famous hymn to the drug. Morphine, a crossover band that mixes elements of cool jazz and modern rock, took its name from the alkaloid, and one of its albums is titled Cure for Pain (Rykodisc, 1993).

Cacti Containing Mescaline (from Doetsch et al. 1980; La Barre 1979; Mata and McLaughlin 1982*; Shulgin 1995*; Lundstrom 1971; Pardanini et al. 1978; Ott 1993*; Turner and Heyman 1960) Species Occurrence Use Gymnocalycium gibbosum (Haw.) Pfeiffer Argentina   Gymnocalycium leeanum (Hook.) Br. et R. Argentina, Uruguay   Islaya minor Backeb. southern Peru   Lophophora diffusa (Croizat) Bravo Mexico peyote substitute [syn. Lophophora echinata]     Lophophora jourdaniana [nom. nud.]     Lophophora williamsii (Lem.) Coult. Mexico entheogen [syn. Lophophora fricii Habermann]     Myrtillocactus geometrizans (Mart.) Cons. Mexico   Opuntia acanthocarpa Engelm. et Bigel.     Opuntia basilaria Engelm. et Bigel.     Opuntia cylindrica (Lam.) S.-D. Chile inebriant502 Opuntia echinocarpa Engelm. et Bigel.     Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. Mexico, Egypt503 food Opuntia imbricata (Haw.) DC. Arizona   Opuntia spinosior (Engelm.) Tourney Arizona   Pelecyphora aselliformis Ehrenb. Mexico peyote substitute Pereskia corrugata Cutak Florida   Pereskia tampicana Web. Mexico   Pereskiopsis scandens Br. et R. Yucatan   Polaskia chende (Gossel.) Gibs. California   Polaskia sp. California   Pterocereus gaumeri (Br. et R.) Mac-Doug. et Mir. California   Pterocereus sp. California   Stenocereus beneckei (Ehrenb.) Buxbaum California   Stenocereus eruca (Brand.) Gibs. et Horak Baja California   Stenocereus stellatus (Pfeiffer) Rice California   Stenocereus treleasei (Br. et R.) Backeb. California   Stenocereus sp.     Stetsonia coryne (SD.) Br. et R. Argentina   Trichocereus bridgesii (SD.) Br. et R. Peru, Bolivia entheogen Trichocereus cuscoensis Br. et R. Peru   Trichocereus fulvinanus Ritt. Chile   Trichocereus macrogonus (SD.) Ricc. Peru   Trichocereus pachanoi Br. et R. Peru, Ecuador entheogen Trichocereus peruvianus Br. et R. Peru entheogen Trichocereus spachianus (Lem.) Rice. Indiana (cultivated)   Trichocereus strigosus (SD.) Br. et R. Argentina   Trichocereus taquimbalensis Card. Peru   Trichocereus terscheckii (Parm.) Br. et R. Peru, northwestern   Trichocereus validus (Monv.) Backbg. Argentina   Trichocereus werdermannianus Backbg. Peru, Bolivia   Commercial Forms and Regulations Morphine is available from pharmacies in the form of morphine hydrochloride. Although morphine is covered by narcotics laws, it can be obtained with a special prescription. In the United States, morphine is a Schedule II substance. Literature See also the entries for Papaver somniferum and Papaver spp. Amann, Tobias, and Meinhart H. Zenk. 1996. Endogenes Morphin: Schmerzmittelsynthese in Mensch und Tier. Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung 136 (7): 17-25. (Contains a very good bibliography.) Brossi, Arnold. 1991. Mammalian alkaloids: Conversions of tetrahydroisoquinoline-1carboxylic acid derived from dopamin. Planta Medica 57 suppl. (1): 93 ff. Bulgaka, M. 1971. Morphium Erzahlungen. Zurich: Arche Verlag. Cardinale, George J., Josef Donnerer, A. Donald Finck, Joel D. Kantrowitz, Kazuhiro Oka, and Sydney Spector. 1987. Morphine and codeine are endogenous compounds of human cerebrospinal fluid. Life Sciences 40:301-6. Fairbain, J. W., S. S. Handa, E. Giirkan, and J. D. Phillipson. 1978. In vitro conversion of morphine to its N-oxide in Papaver somniferum latex. Phytochemistry 172:261-62. Ferres, H. 1926. Gefahrliche Betaubungsmittel: Morphium und Kokain. In Bibliothek der Unterhaltung und des Wissens, 5:136-44. Stuttgart: Union Deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft. Hazum, Eli, Julie J. Sabatka, Kwen-Jen Chang, David A. Brent, John W. A. Findlay, and Pedro Cuatrecasas. 1981. Morphine in cow and human milk: Could dietary morphine constitute a ligand for specific morphine (m) receptors? Science 213:1010-12. Kramer, John C. 1980. The opiates: Two centuries of scientific study. Journal ofPsychedelic Drugs 12 (2): 89-103. Mac From, ed. 1931. Taglich 5 Gramm MorphiumAufzeichnungen eines Morphinisten. BerlinPankow: A. H. Muller. Melzack, Ronald. 1991. Morphium und schwere chronische Schmerzen. Offprint of Spektrum der Wissenschaft. Heidelberg: Spektrum der Wissenschaft Verlag. Schmitz, Rudolf. 1983. Friedrich Wilhelm A. Serturner und die Morphinentdeckung. Pharmazeutische Zeitung 128:1350-59. Schuhmann-Ingolstadt, Otto. n.d. Morphium: Lebensroman des Entdeckers. Berlin and Frankfurt/M.: Deutscher Apothekerverlag. Slavik. J., and 1. Slavikov<i. 1976. Occurrence of morphin as a minor alkaloid in Papaver decaisnei Hochst. Collection Czechoslov. Chem. Commun. 45:2706-9.