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<td valign="top" width="50%">Family
Piperaceae (Pepper Family); Pipereae Tribe
The genus Piper includes some 1,000 to 1,200
species, many of which are ethnobotanically
significant (Halzl et al. 1993, 191; Schultes and
Raffauf 1990, 364). Half of all Piper species occur
in the American tropics. These include epiphytic
plants, climbers, half-shrubs, and small trees. A
large number of essential oils occur in the genus,
so many leaves, inflorescences, and fruits are
highly aromatic and have therefore attracted
cultural attention. Some Piper species are said to
have psychoactive, and others aphrodisiac, effects.
Safrole and asarone have been identified in various
species (such as Piper divaricatum Meyer, P.
manassausense, P. futokadsura, and P. sarmentosum)
(Avella et al. 1994). Piper abutiloides Kunth,
Piper cincinnatoris Yuncker, and Piper lindbergii C.
DC., which are used in Brazilian folk medicine as
analgesics, are pharmacologically active (Costa et
al. 1989). It has even been suggested that the
common black pepper (Piper nigrum 1.) is capable
of inducing hallucinogenic effects (Schultes and
Hofmann 1980,368).
The so-called red pepper comes not from a
Piper species but from the Peruvian pepper tree
(Schinus moUe 1.; cf. Norman 1991,53). In South
America, it is used to aid in the fermentation of
chicha and also as a beer additive.

Piper amalago L. [syn. Piper medium Jacq.]amalago
pepper
The leaves of this bush, which is indigenous to
Central America (southern Mexico, Belize), are
smaller and narrower than those of Piper auritum,
but the plant is otherwise quite similar in appearance.
When rubbed, its leaves smell strongly of the
essential oil safrole. It may be possible to use this
pepper species for psychoactive purposes. The
Maya, who call the plant yaaxpehelche', regard it as
the "younger sibling" or "female" counterpart of
Piper auritum.

Piper angustifolium Ruiz et Pavon-matico
pepper
It is not known whether this American pepper
species has psychoactive effects by itself. Because
of the disinfectant properties of its fresh leaves, the
plant is also known as soldier's herb. Its leaves and
inflorescences are an ingredient in various Aztec
cacao recipes (see Theobroma cacao) and have a
mild stimulating effect because of the essential oil
that is present (R~itsch 1991a, 185). Some authors
regard Piper angustifolium as a synonym for Piper
elongatum, which is also known as matico pepper.

Piper cubeba L. [syn. Cubeba officinalis Miq. (or
Raf.)]-cubeb pepper
This climbing shrub, which is indigenous to the
Sunda Islands and eastern Asia, grows
preferentially on Erythrina indica [syn. E.
variegata] (cf. Erythrina spp.) and is the source of
the fruit that is sold under the names cubeb, kubeb,
cubeb pepper, pimenta cubeba, and fructus cubebae
(Macmillan 1991, 415; Norman 1991, 54). The
fruits contain 10 to 20% essential oil, 2.50/0
cubebin (C2oH2006)' and amorphous cubeb acid.
Large doses of the essential oil can induce
irritation in the urinary tract as well as headaches,
which is why one of the fruit's folk names is dizzy
corns. Such typical CNS symptoms as anxiety
states and delirium have also been reported. Two
grams has been given as a well-tolerated single
dosage, while the daily dosage should not exceed
10 g (Roth et al. 1994, 570). Hildegard von
Bingen described the psychoactive effects as well
as an anaphrodisiac effect that is difficult to
understand:
The cubeb is warm, and this warmth in itself
is of the proper mixture, and it is also dry. And
when someone eats cubeb, then any unseemly
desires that are within him are moderated. But
it also makes his spirits cheerful and his reason
and knowledge pure, for the useful and
moderate warmth of the cubeb extinguishes
the unseemly flames of desire in which the
stinking and slimy liquids are hidden, and it
makes the spirit of man and his reason
illuminatingly clear. (Physica 1.26)
Cubeb is used in folk medicine in cases of
weakness of memory and to increase the sexual
appetite (aphrodisiac) (Gottlieb 1974, 26 f. ; Halzl
et al. 1993, 196). In Yemen, where they are known
as kebab, the fruits are regarded as an aphrodisiac
and nerve tonic (Fleurentin and Pelt 1982,92 f.).
In former times, cubeb was often used as a spice.
Today, it is used only in Asian cusine (e.g., as an ingredient in curries). It is one of the primary
ingredients in the Moroccan spice mixture ras el
hanout, which also contains cardamom (Elettaria
cardamomum), nutmeg fruits and flowers (Myristica
fragrans) , galanga (Alpinia sp.; cf. Kaempferia
galanga), long pepper (Piper longum), cinnamon
(Cinnamomum verum), cloves (Syzygium aromaticum)
, ginger (Zingiber officinale) , rose buds
(Rosa sp.), lavender flowers (Lavandula angustifolia
Mill.) , Spanish fly (Cantharides), ash berries
(Fraxinus sp.?), paradise corns (Amomum
melegueta), black pepper (Piper nigrum), peanuts
(Arachis hypogaea 1.), turmeric (Curcuma longa),
cassia (Cinnamomum cassia), fennel seeds (Nigella
sativa), monk's pepper (Vitex agnus-castus) ,
belladonna (Atropa belladonna), and violet root
(Viola odorata 1.) (Norman 1991, 96f.). The
consumption of large quantities of this spice
mixture is said to produce psychoactive and
aphrodisiac effects. Cubeb pepper is also an ingredient
in Oriental joy pills and was once used as an
additive to wine (see Vitis vinifera).

Piper elongatum Vahl [syn. Artanthe elongata
(Vah!) Miq., Piper angustifolium RUlz et Pavon,
Piper purpurascens D. Dietr., Steggensia elongata
(Vah!) Kunth]-matico pepper
The matico or soldiers' pepper comes from the
Central and South American tropics and has a
long history of use as a medicine and as an agent
of pleasure. The leaves contain 0.3 to 60/0 essential
oil, in which asarone and parsley apiol are present
alongside the primary component, dillapiol (cf.
Acorus calamus, Petroselinum crispum). Matico
pepper is used in Panama as an aphrodisiac and
stimulant (Holzi et al. 1993, 198). In Mexico, it is
one of the traditional spices for cacao (see
Theobroma cacao). It is possible that mild psychoactive
effects can result from the consumption of
high doses of the leaves.</td>
<td valign="top" width="53%">Piper interitum Trelease-tetsi pepper
The Kulina Indians of Peru use the leaves and
roots of Piper interitum, which they call tetsi, to
produce a snuff used as a substitute for tobacco
snuff (cf. Nicotiana tabacum) that is alleged to
have psychoactive properties (Schultes 1978b,
227; Schultes and Raffauf 1990, 365 f.).

Piper longum 1. [syn. Chavica roxbhurgii Miq.,
Chavica sarmentosa (Roxb.) Miq., Piper
latifolium Hunter, Piper sarmentosum Roxb.Jlong
pepper, pippali
In Asia and Arabia, the unripe fruits of the long
pepper are used as a spice, an aphrodisiac, and a
medicine (Fleurentin and Pelt 1982, 92 f. ; Ratsch
1995). They contain approximately 1% essential oil
with sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and p-cymene,
dihydrocarveol, terpinoles, and a-thujene as well
as amides (piperidine and others). The drug has
vasodilatory properties (Holzi et al. 1993,200). In
Asia, long pepper has been used as a spice for
much longer than black pepper (Norman 1991,
52). While black pepper has been regarded as an
aphrodisiac in Europe since ancient times, long
pepper has an even greater reputation. Long
pepper is a principal ingredient in numerous
recipes for the aphrodisiac preparations used in
tantric rituals (cf. Oriental joy pills). It is regarded
as an "inciter" in Ayurvedic medicine. Its qualities
are pungent, heating, and sweet, which is why it
strengthens the functions of the genital system
and is said to provide the organs of desire with a
warming energy (Lad and Frawley 1987, 249).
The Ananga-Ranga, an ancient Indian book on the
art of the love, lists a tantric "secret agent"possibly
with psychoactive effects-that awakens
the lingam (= phallus) to life:
Take a few corns of black pepper [Piper
nigrum], seeds of the thorn apple [Datura
metel], one pod of pinpalli (Piper longum,
which yields the pepper that works slowly, or
betel powder [Areca catechu]) with lodhra
peel or Morinda citrifolia, which is used for
dyeing; rub this with light honey and [rub it
on the lingam]. This agent is unsurpassable.
(Johann Wolfgang von Goethes, AnangaRanga
1985, 65)
The spice mixture trikatu, "three spices;' which
is widely known in India, consists of equal parts of
long pepper, black pepper, and dried pieces of
gingerroot (Zingiber officinale). This mixture is
considered to be the most important Ayurvedic
stimulant. Trikatu is a rejuvenator for agni, the
inner fire. At the same time, it is important as an agent that is taken together with other medicines;
its stimulating effects potentiate or improve the
assimilation of all kinds of active substances.

Piper plantagineum Schlecht.
This Caribbean species was once allegedly used in
the West Indies (Mexico) in a similar manner to
Piper methysticum; it may be identical to Piper
auritum.

Piper sp.-syryboa
In his book Der Orientalisch-Indianische Kunstund
Lustgartner [The Oriental-Indian Art and
Pleasure Gardener] (1677), George Meister, who
traveled to the East Indies, described a species of
Piper that was used in a similar manner to or as a
substitute for betel pepper (Piper betle):
On Foliis Syryboae. These run lengthwise up
the trees in the same way as folia bettele or
pepper. The fruit is almost that of a long
pepper species, pungent taste, looking like the
so-called aments that hang on the hazel nuts
in the spring, but somewhat thicker and
longer, almost a span in length. These are cut
from one another and eaten along with filled
bettele leaves and the fruit areca [cf. Areca
catechu] . In addition, they also take the flower,
known as canange, which has yellow petals,
with this, so that it has not just a pleasant
scent but also a good taste. (Ch. 9, 20)
Unfortunately, the species of pepper described
here as an additive to betel quids cannot be
determined with certainty. The "canange flower" is
very likely the blossom of the ylang-ylang tree
(Cananga odorata; cf. essential oils).

Piper spp.-masho-hara
The Tanimuka and Yucuna Indians of the Rio
Miritiparana (Amazonia) boil the very aromatic
leaves of one Piper species to prepare a drink that
is said to invigorate the elderly (Schultes 1993,
135). Other species of Piper that are also known
as masho-hara or yauardi-hena are used as ritual
snuffs in Amazonia. The Muinane from the region
of La Pedrera make a snuff from the dried leaves of
a Piper species and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum).
Shamans chew or smoke various Piper species to
track down cases of witchcraft. The Cane10 use a
Piper species that they call guayusa (cf. Ilex
guayusa) as a stimulant (Schultes and Raffauf
1990,367 f.*). One Piper species endemic to Papua
New Guinea that has not yet been botanically
described contains kavalactones (cf. keu).

Literature
See also the entries for Piper auritum, Piper betle,
Piper methysticum, and Macropiper excelsum.
Atal, C. K., K. 1. Dhar, and J. Singh. 1975. The
chemistry of Indian Piper species. Lloydia
38:256-64.
Avella, Eliseo, Pedro P. Diaz, and Aura M. P. de Diaz.
1994. Constituents from Piper divaricatum.
Planta Medica 60:195.
Costa, Mirtes, Luiz C. di Stasi, Mizue Kirizawa, Sigrid
1.J. Menda<;:olli, Cecilia Gomes, and Gustaf
Trolin. 1989. Screening in mice of some
medicinal plants used for analgesic purposes in
the state of Sao Paulo. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology 27:25-33.
Goethes, Johann Wolfgang v., ed. Ananga-Ranga.
1985. Orientalische Liebeslehre. Munich:
Goldmann.
Holzl, Josef, S. Wiltrud Juretzek, and Elisabeth StahlBiskup.
1993. Piper. In Ragers Randbuch der
pharmazeutischen Praxis, 5th ed., 5:52-59. Berlin:
Springer.
Ilyas, M. 1976. Spices in India. Economic Botany
30:273-80.
Raisch, Christian. 1995. Piper longum, der
ayurvedische Scharfmacher. Dao 6/95:68.</td>
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Pepper Species - Revision history

GrimReaper at 08:06, 11 March 2015