TripSit Wiki - User contributions [en]

Content Commands

2019-04-24T18:39:50Z

Dread:

== Content Tripbot commands ==

'''Remember: If you are editing an entry for the factsheets follow the style of the other entries.'''

To change one of the factsheet entries you must use the following syntax:

<code>~setdrug <drugname> <property> <value></code>

<code>~rmdrug <drugname> <property> <value></code>

For example:

<code>~setdrug cannabis dose 420 grams</code>

<code>~setdrug aMT duration long af</code>

<code>~rmdrug aMT duration long af</code>

Aliases can be added and removed with :

<code>~setdrugalias <drug> alias</code>

<code>~rmdrugalias <drug> alias</code>

Drug Categories can be set from those listed at the end of the page. These must be set using a special command, and are to be added one at a time:

<code>~setdrugcategory ketamine tool</code>

A special category exists for adding equivalences to diazepam to benzodiazepines for the benzo calculator.

Benzo calculator syntax example:

<code>~setdrug Prazepam Dose_to_Diazepam Prazepam - 15mg ~=10mg Diazepam</code>

===List of Properties===
*summary,
*detection,
*duration,
*onset
*after-effects
*aliases
*categories
*dose
*effects
*experiences
*marquis
*avoid
*dose_to_diazepam

===List of Categories===

*Tentative
*Sedative
*Stimulant
*Benzodiazepine
*Research Chemical
*Dissociative
*Psychedelic
*Opioid

Content Commands

2019-04-13T18:32:01Z

Dread:

== Content Tripbot commands ==

'''Remember: If you are editing an entry for the factsheets follow the style of the other entries.'''

To change one of the factsheet entries you must use the following syntax:

<code>~setdrug <drugname> <property> <value></code>

For example:

<code>~setdrug cannabis dose 420 grams</code>

<code>~setdrug aMT duration long af</code>

Aliases can be added and removed with :

<code>~setdrugalias <drug> alias</code>

<code>~rmdrugalias <drug> alias</code>

Drug Categories can be set from those listed at the end of the page. These must be set using a special command, and are to be added one at a time:

<code>~setdrugcategory ketamine tool</code>

A special category exists for adding equivalences to diazepam to benzodiazepines for the benzo calculator.

Benzo calculator syntax example:

<code>~setdrug Prazepam Dose_to_Diazepam Prazepam - 15mg ~=10mg Diazepam</code>

===List of Properties===
*summary,
*detection,
*duration,
*onset
*after-effects
*aliases
*categories
*dose
*effects
*experiences
*marquis
*avoid
*dose_to_diazepam

===List of Categories===

*Tentative
*Sedative
*Stimulant
*Benzodiazepine
*Research Chemical
*Dissociative
*Psychedelic
*Opioid

Content Commands

2019-04-13T18:29:55Z

Dread: Fix trees formatting

== Content Tripbot commands ==

'''Remember: If you are editing an entry for the factsheets follow the style of the other entries.'''

To change one of the factsheet entries you must use the following syntax:

<code>~setdrug <drugname> <property> <value></code>

For example:

<code>~setdrug cannabis dose 420 grams</code>

<code>~setdrug aMT duration long af</code>

Aliases can be added and removed with :

<code>~setdrugalias <drug> alias</code>

<code>~rmdrugalias <drug> alias</code>

Drug Categories must be set using a special command, and are to be added one at a time:

<code>~setdrugcategory ketamine tool</code>

A special category exists for adding equivalences to diazepam to benzodiazepines for the benzo calculator.

Benzo calculator syntax example:

<code>~setdrug Prazepam Dose_to_Diazepam Prazepam - 15mg ~=10mg Diazepam</code>

===List of Properties===
*summary,
*detection,
*duration,
*onset
*after-effects
*aliases
*categories
*dose
*effects
*experiences
*marquis
*avoid
*dose_to_diazepam

===List of Categories===

*Tentative
*Sedative
*Stimulant
*Benzodiazepine
*Research Chemical
*Dissociative
*Psychedelic
*Opioid

Content Commands

2019-04-12T12:56:25Z

Dread: reference page for using tripbot to edit factsheets

NBOMes

2019-04-02T16:33:08Z

Dread: Changed dosage table to use api

[[File:25c.jpg|thumb|300px|25C-NBOMe tabs dosed at 1mg each.]]

These chemicals have nearly no history of human use prior to 2010 when they first became available online, and very little is known about this group of compounds. They should only be used with extreme caution. It's strongly recommended to not take more than 1500 µg of any substance of the NBOMe family, as there have been multiple deaths from people taking just 2-3 blotters.

== Dosage ==
Effects have been reported to vary wildly between people (example: person A gets a 4-hour body high with barely any visual aspects, while person B gets a >12 hour DOB-like trip with an intense visual aspect). Drugs affect all users differently, but this unusually wide range of reported effects is down, in part, to users being unable to accurately distinguish between members of the NBOMe series, and misrepresentation of doses - a single tab regularly yields between 500ug and 2000ug of the substance.

NBOMes were initially thought to be orally inactive, meaning they wouldn't work if swallowed. However, this is not the case for all NBOMes per se; certain NBOMe salts do have an observed oral bioavailability, with little known about the oral bioavailability of NBOMes in their freebase form. Therefore, when a substance might be an NBOMe, discard the blotter entirely rather than swallowing it, if you do not wish to risk being under the influence of an NBOMe. Oral administration is relatively uncommon and thus undocumented, presumably as a result of the existing confusion about the oral bioavailability of NBOMes. Sublingual administration is the most common, but buccal administration is recommended if you wish to avoid the generally bitter taste of NBOMes.

The doses of NBOMes remain a controversial subject, as deaths have been reported at doses that were previously assumed acceptable. Please use caution, and in any case, '''do not exceed 1500µg'''!

=== 25B-NBOMe ===

{{#tdose: 25B-NBOMe}}

=== 25C-NBOMe ===

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sublingual
|-
| Light || 100-300 μg
|-
| Common || 300-800 μg
|-
| Strong || 800+ μg
|}

=== 25I-NBOMe ===

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sublingual
|-
| Light || 200-500 μg
|-
| Common || 500-750 μg
|-
| Strong || 700-1000+ μg
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Insufflated
|-
| Light || 100-400 μg
|-
| Common || 400-700 μg
|-
| Strong || 700+ μg
|}

== Duration ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sublingual
|-
| Onset || 15-45 minutes
|-
| Total || 4-11 hours
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Insufflated
|-
| Onset || 0-10 minutes
|-
| Total || 3-8 hours
|}

== Effects ==

=== Positive ===

* Strong open and closed eye visuals, including trails, color shifts, brightening, etc.
* Mood lift
* Euphoria
* Mental and physical stimulation
* Increase in associative & creative thinking
* Increased awareness & appreciation of music
* Life-changing spiritual experiences
* Erotic, sexual thoughts and sensations
* Feelings of love and empathy

=== Neutral ===

* General change in consciousness
* Pupil dilation
* Difficulty focusing
* Unusual body sensations (facial flushing, chills, goosebumps, body energy)
* Change in perception of time, time dilation
* Slight increase in heart rate
* Yawning, especially when coming up

=== Negative ===

Likelihood of negative side effects increases with higher doses.
* Confusion
* Looping
* Scrambled communication
* Nausea
* Vasoconstriction
* Insomnia
* Looping, recursive, out of control thinking
* Paranoia, fear, and panic
* Unwanted and overwhelming feelings
* Unwanted life-changing spiritual experiences

=== After effects ===

* Afterglow
**An afterglow may be present until a day after use, sometimes more depending on the individual.

* Long term effects
**A relatively high rate of HPPD has been reported (all anecdotal data!) after the use of the NBOMe chemicals.

== Harm Reduction ==

NBOMes are considered less safe than many psychedelics due their heavy physical effects on the body, and as recreational dosages tend to overlap with what have been fatal dosages. Even so, many reports of death by an NBOMe chemical involve mislabeling of the drug, sometimes by the distributor (example: someone insufflates 20mg of 25I-NBOMe because he/she thought it was 2C-I). Mislabeling or misweighing can easily lead to extrememely dangerous, sometimes lethal, situations. Administration of an NBOMe in its powder form (either insufflated or otherwise) is strongly discouraged, as the potency is far greater than the accuracy of most scales.

Furthermore, due to the physical strain the drug causes one should not use it if there are any pre-existing heart conditions.

See [[Psychedelics#Harm_Reduction|Psychedelic Harm Reduction]] for general information.

== Images ==

<gallery mode="packed-hover" heights="150px">
Image:25b.jpg|''25B-NBOMe''
Image:25c.jpg|''25C-NBOMe''
Image:25i.jpg|''25I-NBOMe''
</gallery>

== Legal status ==

=== Europe ===

The NBOMe series of psychoactives became controlled in the Russian Federation starting October, 2011.<ref>http://www.rg.ru/2011/10/19/narko-dok.html</ref>

The UK Home Office announced that 25I-NBOMe would be made a class A drug on 10th June 2014 alongside every other N-benzyl phenethylamines.<ref>http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2014/9780111110904</ref>

=== America ===

25i-NBOMe, 25b-NBOMe, and 25c-NBOMe were emergency scheduled by the DEA on Novemeber 15, 2013<ref>http://www.justice.gov/dea/divisions/hq/2013/hq111513.shtml</ref>

== Links ==

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBOMe Wikipedia]

[https://www.erowid.org/chemicals/nbome/ Erowid]

[http://www.reddit.com/r/Drugs/comments/14wua3/rdrugs_faq_series_nbome_series_aka_25xnbome/?sort=top /r/Drugs FAQ]

== References ==

<references />

[[Category:Psychedelic]]
[[Category:Drugs]]
[[Category:Research Chemical]]

Injection

2017-11-09T00:23:17Z

Dread: HIV warning

Some drug users may choose to inject drugs into the body using hypodermic needles. This is normally done due to achieve accelerated onset or greater bioavailability. It must be noted, however, that injecting drugs, especially intravenously, increases risk in multiple ways, ranging from physical harm to greater addiction potential.

The risks involved are many but range from minor cosmetic damage to the skin at the injection site to serious adverse outcomes like sepsis or vein collapse in poorly performed procedures or too frequent use of intravenous injection in a region. For certain drugs injection also seriously increases the risk of overdose. These are not dangers to be taken lightly and must be taken into account.

There are several methods of injecting drugs, each with a different technique. Not all drugs are injectable, not all drugs are worth injecting, and which method one uses to inject varies by compound. Therefore, whilst it is always essential to research the properties of the drugs you are using, it is ''especially'' so when injecting drugs directly into the body. This article assumes you have evaluated the properties of your chosen drug and that you have selected a drug which is appropriate for your chosen technique.

Do not reuse your equipment, particularly needles and syringes as this is an infection risk. ''Never'' share a needle, as this is a vector for the transmission of several serious blood borne diseases including HIV and multiple hepatitis viruses. These cannot be cured, only managed, but can be contracted through a single shared needle.

== Equipment ==

Unlike other methods of using drugs, injection requires significant preparation and equipment. Most of the necessary items are available from needle exchanges or online retailers.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Item !! Description !! Image
|-
| Needle || These are the hypodermic tips which attach to syringes. They are typically sold separately from syringes, and come in a variety of lengths and diameters depending on the technique they are required for. ||
[[File:HypodermicNeedles.jpeg]]
|-
| Syringe || These are plastic devices which contain a barrel and a plunger. They allow measured amounts of liquid to be pulled into them, and expelled where required. Typically syringes connect to needles via a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luer_taper Luer Lock] mechanism. The size of the syringe you require will depend on the type of drug you use, and the volume of liquid required to dissolve an active dose. || [[File:Ketsyri.jpg]]
|-
| Gloves || While some people skip using gloves, they are useful in avoiding contamination and protecting against infection. || [[File:glove.jpg]]
|-
| Alcoholic wipes || These are necessary for cleaning your hands and the injection site. || [[File:Preppad.jpg]]
|-
| Sterile water || This is necessary for dissolving your drug of choice. If your drug is already in pharmaceutical solution this step is not necessary. If you do not have access to sterile water it is possible to boil water for 10 minutes to achieve a relatively sterile solution, although this is inferior to truly sterile solution. || [[File:Sterilewater.jpg]]

|}

== Intramuscular Injection ==

This method of injection is typically used for drugs for which speedy onset is not appropriate. The main 'street' drug injected intramuscularly is ketamine. Muscle is highly vascular, meaning it is well supplied with blood vessels, yet acts as a reservoir for the injected drug, releasing it gradually into the bloodstream. Onset is typically within a matter of 5 to 15 minutes.

For intramuscular injection you will need a relatively long needle, more than 2 centimetres. 21 or 23G is the recommended gauge used by the NHS. Before you inject, inspect your surroundings for danger. Ensure there is nothing lying around to trip on, slip on, or hit your head on. Inject in a position that you can sit or lie down from, after drug administration.

* Don your gloves and use an alcohol swab to sterilise the injection site (see diagram), the gloves themselves and any other equipment that has not come in sterile packaging.

*If you do not have a solution of your drug, then you will need to work out the minimum amount of liquid required to dissolve the dose. This varies by the solubility of the drug in water. Weigh out the correct dose and place it into a container you have sterilised beforehand. Some injection centres offer disposable 'cookers' for this purpose, but you can also use a spoon.

*Remove the syringe and needle from their respective packaging. Affix the needle to the syringe. It is likely a 'luer lock' device, which attaches by screwing on.

* Draw up the necessary amount of liquid, and gently press down the plunger to eject it onto the dose of drug. You may need to stir the mixture gently to ensure it all dissolves. Do not inject if the substance has not entirely dissolved, add more water until it is entirely liquid.

* Draw up the solution of the drug into the syringe taking care not to touch any part of the syringe to non-sterile surfaces. If you have a solution of your drug simply draw up the appropriate dose from the bottle. Where possible avoid drawing air into the syringe.

* Invert the syringe and visually inspect for bubbles. If any are present, flick the barrel of the syringe to dislodge them and cause them to rise towards the needle. Depress the plunger slightly until you see liquid exit, to ensure any air has cleared the syringe. Injecting a small quantity of air intramuscularly is not extremely dangerous but it is best practice to avoid it.

* Pull the skin above the injection site taut and insert the needle into the body at a right angle to the skin. Draw the plunger back slightly and check for any blood (there should not be a large amount of blood entering the syringe, this indicates the needle is inside a blood vessel). If the barrel is clear, depress the plunger gently. Avoid injecting rapidly as this can be uncomfortable.

* Allow the needle to sit in the skin for a few seconds, then withdraw it and allow the skin to relax again. This will allow the layers of skin, fascia and muscle to slide over each other, sealing the drug inside the muscle

* Immediately re-cap the needle, and place gauze or a plaster/band-aid on the wound. Place the syringe somewhere safe for disposal and lie down. The drug will take effect rapidly, do not attempt to walk around, you may collapse.

Injection

2017-11-09T00:03:08Z

Dread: IM complete, needs injection site info

Some drug users may choose to inject drugs into the body using hypodermic needles. This is normally done due to achieve accelerated onset or greater bioavailability. It must be noted, however, that injecting drugs, especially intravenously, increases risk in multiple ways, ranging from physical harm to greater addiction potential.

The risks involved are many but range from minor cosmetic damage to the skin at the injection site to serious adverse outcomes like sepsis or vein collapse in poorly performed procedures or too frequent use of intravenous injection in a region. For certain drugs injection also seriously increases the risk of overdose. These are not dangers to be taken lightly and must be taken into account.

There are several methods of injecting drugs, each with a different technique. Not all drugs are injectable, not all drugs are worth injecting, and which method one uses to inject varies by compound. Therefore, whilst it is always essential to research the properties of the drugs you are using, it is ''especially'' so when injecting drugs directly into the body. This article assumes you have evaluated the properties of your chosen drug and that you have selected a drug which is appropriate for your chosen technique.

== Equipment ==

Unlike other methods of using drugs, injection requires significant preparation and equipment. Most of the necessary items are available from needle exchanges or online retailers.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Item !! Description !! Image
|-
| Needle || These are the hypodermic tips which attach to syringes. They are typically sold separately from syringes, and come in a variety of lengths and diameters depending on the technique they are required for. ||
[[File:HypodermicNeedles.jpeg]]
|-
| Syringe || These are plastic devices which contain a barrel and a plunger. They allow measured amounts of liquid to be pulled into them, and expelled where required. Typically syringes connect to needles via a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luer_taper Luer Lock] mechanism. The size of the syringe you require will depend on the type of drug you use, and the volume of liquid required to dissolve an active dose. || [[File:Ketsyri.jpg]]
|-
| Gloves || While some people skip using gloves, they are useful in avoiding contamination and protecting against infection. || [[File:glove.jpg]]
|-
| Alcoholic wipes || These are necessary for cleaning your hands and the injection site. || [[File:Preppad.jpg]]
|-
| Sterile water || This is necessary for dissolving your drug of choice. If your drug is already in pharmaceutical solution this step is not necessary. If you do not have access to sterile water it is possible to boil water for 10 minutes to achieve a relatively sterile solution, although this is inferior to truly sterile solution. || [[File:Sterilewater.jpg]]

|}

== Intramuscular Injection ==

This method of injection is typically used for drugs for which speedy onset is not appropriate. The main 'street' drug injected intramuscularly is ketamine. Muscle is highly vascular, meaning it is well supplied with blood vessels, yet acts as a reservoir for the injected drug, releasing it gradually into the bloodstream. Onset is typically within a matter of 5 to 15 minutes.

For intramuscular injection you will need a relatively long needle, more than 2 centimetres. 21 or 23G is the recommended gauge used by the NHS. Before you inject, inspect your surroundings for danger. Ensure there is nothing lying around to trip on, slip on, or hit your head on. Inject in a position that you can sit or lie down from, after drug administration.

* Don your gloves and use an alcohol swab to sterilise the injection site (see diagram), the gloves themselves and any other equipment that has not come in sterile packaging.

*If you do not have a solution of your drug, then you will need to work out the minimum amount of liquid required to dissolve the dose. This varies by the solubility of the drug in water. Weigh out the correct dose and place it into a container you have sterilised beforehand. Some injection centres offer disposable 'cookers' for this purpose, but you can also use a spoon.

*Remove the syringe and needle from their respective packaging. Affix the needle to the syringe. It is likely a 'luer lock' device, which attaches by screwing on.

* Draw up the necessary amount of liquid, and gently press down the plunger to eject it onto the dose of drug. You may need to stir the mixture gently to ensure it all dissolves. Do not inject if the substance has not entirely dissolved, add more water until it is entirely liquid.

* Draw up the solution of the drug into the syringe taking care not to touch any part of the syringe to non-sterile surfaces. If you have a solution of your drug simply draw up the appropriate dose from the bottle. Where possible avoid drawing air into the syringe.

* Invert the syringe and visually inspect for bubbles. If any are present, flick the barrel of the syringe to dislodge them and cause them to rise towards the needle. Depress the plunger slightly until you see liquid exit, to ensure any air has cleared the syringe. Injecting a small quantity of air intramuscularly is not extremely dangerous but it is best practice to avoid it.

* Pull the skin above the injection site taut and insert the needle into the body at a right angle to the skin. Draw the plunger back slightly and check for any blood (there should not be a large amount of blood entering the syringe, this indicates the needle is inside a blood vessel). If the barrel is clear, depress the plunger gently. Avoid injecting rapidly as this can be uncomfortable.

* Allow the needle to sit in the skin for a few seconds, then withdraw it and allow the skin to relax again. This will allow the layers of skin, fascia and muscle to slide over each other, sealing the drug inside the muscle

* Immediately re-cap the needle, and place gauze or a plaster/band-aid on the wound. Place the syringe somewhere safe for disposal and lie down. The drug will take effect rapidly, do not attempt to walk around, you may collapse.

Injection

2017-11-08T23:31:07Z

Dread: table completed

File:Ketsyri.jpg

2017-11-08T23:30:11Z

Dread:

File:Sterilewater.jpg

2017-11-08T23:27:13Z

Dread:

File:Preppad.jpg

2017-11-08T23:25:26Z

Dread:

File:Glove.jpg

2017-11-08T23:22:37Z

Dread:

Injection

2017-06-22T11:38:53Z

Dread: Created page with "Some drug users may choose to inject drugs into the body using hypodermic needles. This is normally done due to achieve accelerated onset or greater bioavailability. It must b..."

File:HypodermicNeedles.jpeg

2017-06-22T11:24:26Z

Dread: Picture of Hypodermic Needles

Picture of Hypodermic Needles

2C-P

2016-09-19T17:28:50Z

Dread: factsheet relative dosing table

'''2C-P''' is a rather uncommon psychedelic compound of the 2C-X family of substances. It's considered to be a strong and long-lasting psychedelic phenethylamine which possesses stimulant effects as well. MG for MG it is only rivaled by 2C-TFM. It's been known to have a very long come-up with some users reporting it taking up to 3-5 hours after consumption before any psychoactive effects begin to occur. Yet it is unique in its own right.

== History ==
It was first synthesized by Alexander Shulgin in 1974. Like most of the other 2C-X family it's highly dose sensitive. It has been compared to 2C-E in effects except it is longer in duration.

== Dosage ==
The dosage for this drug is very sensitive so you may want to look at the links provided: [[Quick Guide to Volumetric Dosing]] and [[Scales]]

{{#tdose: 2cp }}

== Duration ==
2C-P can have a very long duration (up to around 16-22 hours) so be prepared if you plan on taking this substance to make sure to take that into account.
Most experiences within the dosages above last around 10-16 hours.
This substance is very dose dependant.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oral
|-
| Onset || 60 minutes to several hours.
|-
| Total || 10-16 hours (Very dose dependent)
|-
| After-effects || Up to 24 hours (Very dose dependent)
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Insufflated
|-
| Onset || 15-45 minutes.
|-
| Total || 10-16 hours (Very dose dependent)
|-
| After-effects || Up to 24 hours (Very dose dependent)
|}

== Effects ==
=== Postive ===
*Euphoria
*Mental and Physical Stimulation
*Enhanced Visual/Tactile Perception
*Overall sensory enhancement
*Feelings of love and empathy.
*Increased sociability
*Increased sense of creativity.

=== Neutral ===
*Change in consciousness
*Confusion
*Inability to concentrate
*Out of Body Experience
*Decreased Appetite
*Over stimulation
*Pupil Dilation
*Sweating

=== Negative ===
*Nausea
*Muscle spams
*Bruxism
*Anxiety
*Paranoia
*Severe Confusion
*Uncomfortable Stimulation
*Motor impairment
*Hypertension
*Vasoconstriction
*Tachycardia

=== After Effects ===
*Tiredness
*Feeling "off" the prior day(s)
*Exhaustion

== Harm Reduction ==
2C-P being very dose dependant. Be careful while dealing with this substance or it could regard in an overdose.

For information regarding interactions Check out our [[Drug Combinations]] page and chart for interactions and combinations of common drugs.
See [[Psychedelic#Harm_Reduction|Psychedelic Harm Reduction]] for general information.

=== Potentiators ===
* Cannabis

== Images ==
[[Image:2cp_package.jpg|170px|2C-P package]]
[[Image:2cp_molecule.gif|2C-P molecule]]

== Chemistry and Pharmacology ==
Chemical name: 2-(2,5-Dimethoxy-4-propylphenyl)ethanamine
Other relevant chem/pharm info:

=== LD50 ===
The LD50 of this compound is unknown.

== Legal status ==
UK: 2C-P is a Class A Drug.
USA: 2C-P is a Schedule I drug.



[[Category:Psychedelic]]
[[Category:Drugs]]

2C-E

2016-09-19T17:27:43Z

Dread: factsheet relative dosing table

[[File:2ce.jpg|thumb|150px|Vial of 2C-E with powder]]

'''2C-E''' is a chemical of the [[2C-X]] series which is characterised by its particularly intense visuals and higher potency when compared with other members of the family.

== History ==

2C-E, like many of its close analogues, was first synthesized by Alexander Shulgin and published in PiHKAL. He was quite fond of it, granting it a place in his "Magical Half Dozen" alongside of [[DOM]], [[2C-B]], [[2C-T-2]] & 7 and [[mescaline]].

== Usage ==

2C-E is mainly a recreational entheogen. It can be quite introspective in appropriate doses and settings. It doesn't lend itself well to intense party-like surroundings, much like LSD or similarly intense psychedelics.

== Dosage ==

{{#tdose: 2ce }}

== Duration ==

Note: Duration can be significantly longer with higher doses.

Anecdotal evidence has shown the oral onset of 2C-E may vary wildly for some users, taking up to three hours before first effects in some cases.

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Oral

| Onset || 60-90 minutes

|-

| Total || 9-14 hours

|}

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Insufflated

| Onset || 20-40 minutes

|-

| Total || 6-9 hours

|}

== Effects ==

2C-E is a psychedelic phenethylamine and as such has psychedelic and stimulant effects. As with all psychedelics, different users are likely to experience different sets of effects, which usually include some however very rarely would include all of the following effects.

Compared to other members of the 2C-X family, 2C-E is generally considered to have a heavier body load and to be more visual than its counterparts.

Note: The prevalence of negative effects increases with higher doses.

=== Positive ===

* Mood lift, euphoria, sense of well-being

* Enhanced sensory perception

* Increase in associative & creative thinking; introspection

* Life-changing 'spiritual' experiences

* Closed and Open eye visuals, patterning, tracers, color-enhancement, etc.

* Enhanced appreciation of music

* Increase in energy

=== Neutral ===

* Time dilation

* Slight increase in heart-rate and body temperature

* Inability to focus or difficulty focusing

=== Negative ===

* Tension

* Anxiety, restlessness, confusion

* Dizziness

* Nausea, gastrointestinal discomfort, possible vomiting

* Over-sensitivity to music or other sensory stimuli

* Unwanted 'spiritual' experiences

* Racing thoughts

== Harm Reduction ==

* As with all psychedelic drugs 2C-E carries with it the potential for a very powerful experience, and as such has the potential to create a very difficult experience ('bad' trip). Mindset and setting play important roles in governing the nature of a psychedelic experience, among other things.

See [[Psychedelics#Harm_Reduction|Psychedelic Harm Reduction]] for more information.

* As with all stimulants, care should be taken when dosing via different ROAs. The oral route has a much lower bioavailabity than those that bypass first pass metabolism i.e. Insufflated, rectal, intramuscular, intravenous and subcutaneous.

See [[Stimulants#Harm Reduction|Stimulant Harm Reduction]] for more information.

=== Interactions ===

See the [[Drug combinations]] chart for more information.

== Chemistry and Pharmacology ==

=== Chemistry ===

2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylphenethylamine is a colorless oil and analogue of mescaline. Similarly it is classified as a psychedelic phenethylamine. It shares the substituted amphetamine core found in the structure of many entactogens. Crystalline forms are obtained as the amine salt by reacting the free base with a mineral acid, typically HCl. It is soluble in both water and ethanol. Maximum concentration in H2O is reported at ~50mg/ml and it is said to be relatively stable in solution. A drop below normal ambient temperatures can cause particles to crystalize out.

Shulgin does not report an exact boiling point for the free base, stating only that during one synthesis the fraction boiling between 90-100 °C at 0.25 mmHg pressure was collected and converted to the hydrochloride salt. Shulgin reports the melting point of the hydrochloride salt as 208.5-210.5 °C.

A full write up on Shulgin's synthesis for 2C-E can be found [https://www.erowid.org/library/books_online/pihkal/pihkal024.shtml here].

=== Pharmacology ===

Like most psychedelic drugs, 2C-E is a 5-HT2a Agonist; from that, we can presume the concurrent or pre-administration of SSRIs may reduce the effects of 2C-E. 2C-E is one of the most potent of the 2C-X family, behind only 2C-P and 2C-T-4. The 2C-X family, specifically, 2C-E, 2C-I, and 2C-C all stimulated G protein binding, suggesting more of an activity similar to tryptamines such as 5-MeO-DMT and, interestingly, DPT. G Proteins are membrane proteins that effectively mediate interaction between hormone receptors and enzymes responsible for changes of metabolism as a result of hormonal changes.

In rats, Stage I metabolism involved deamination and O-Demthylation, which are related to the Monoamine oxidase (MAO) and cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes. For virtually all the 2C’s, (B,I,D,E,T-2, and T-7), MAO-A and MAO-B were reacted upon; interestingly, ½ of the molecules in Shulgin’s Magical Half Dozen (2C-E, 2C-T-2, 2C-T-7, with the addition of 2C-D) also act to a small extent on the CYP2D6 enzyme. Because of the commonality of these receptors, the 2C-X family is likely to be more reactive with other concurrently administered chemicals.

=== LD50 ===

The LD50 in humans is not currently known. Use caution when exploring high doses of this compound.

== Legal status ==

* In Australia, 2C-E was added to the 'Dangerous Drugs' list of the 'Drugs Misuse Amendment Act 2008.

* In Denmark, 2C-E has been added to the list of Schedule B controlled substances.

* In New Zealand, 2C-E is illegal under the Analogues section of Schedule 3 / Class C, along with 2C-I, DOI, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine.

* In Sweden, 2C-E has been made illegal to sell or possess under their Act on the Prohibition of Certain Goods Dangerous to Health (''lagen om förbud mot vissa hälsofarliga varor'').

* In the UK, 2C-E is a Class A controlled Substance under the Misuse of Drugs Act's 2002 amendments and as such is illegal to possess to supply.

* In Germany, 2C-E is a Schedule I drug as of late 2014.

* In the USA, 2C-E is a Schedule I substance under the FDA Safety and Innovation act of 2012, and is illegal to possess, distribute or manufacture.

== Links ==

* [https://www.erowid.org/chemicals/2ce/ Erowid]

* [https://www.erowid.org/library/books_online/pihkal/pihkal024.shtml PiHKAL Entry]

* [https://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/2C-E/ Wikipedia]

[[Category:Stimulant]]
[[Category:Psychedelic]]
[[Category:Drugs]]
[[Category:Research Chemical]]

2C-D

2016-09-19T17:26:29Z

Dread:

[[File:--File-2C-D.gif|thumb|right]]

'''2C-D''' is a short acting psychedelic drug of the [[2C-X|2C-X family]].
The effects of 2C-D are usually compared to 2C-B (although not as visual as 2C-B) or other psychedelic stimulants and sometimes to MDMA (ecstasy). Its effects are generally considered milder than 2C-B, LSD, or MDMA. 2C-D is also known for the strong body component of its effects which are alternately described as pleasurable energy or a 'sense of being in the body', and by others as an unpleasant 'buzzing' or body-load, which is mostly occurring during onset.
Shulgin himself referred to this substance as a “pharmacological tofu,” meaning that when mixed with other substances, it can extend or potentiate their effects without coloring the experience too much, in a manner similar to how tofu absorbs the flavors of sauces or spices it is cooked with. Some people have claimed 2C-D is relatively uninteresting on its own, but many other users have strongly disagreed with this assessment and believe instead 2C-D to be a true psychedelic in its own right.

== History ==
It was first synthesized in 1970 by a team from the Texas Research Institute of Mental Sciences, and its activity was subsequently investigated in humans by Alexander Shulgin.

== Dosage ==

{{#tdose: 2cd }}

== Duration ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oral
|-
| Onset ||15-45 minutes.
|-
| Total || 3-5 hours.
|}

== Effects ==
=== Positive ===

* Euphoria

* Giggling

* Empathy

* Personal Insight

* Enhanced Colors

* Closed and Open Eye Visuals

* Enhanced Tactile Sensation

* Spontaneity

=== Neutral ===

* Decreased Appetite

* Pupil Dilation

* Time Dilation

* Mild elevation in heart rate

=== Negative ===

* Restlessness

* Sweating/Chills

* Nausea

* Insomnia

* Muscle Tension

* Confusion

* Motor impairment

* Anxiety

== Chemistry and Pharmacology ==
*IUPAC: 1-(2,5-Dimethoxy-4-Methylphenyl)-2-aminoethane
*Other names: 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-methyl-phenthylamine
*CAS# 25505-65-1

== Harm Reduction ==

2C-D is one of the safer psychedelics, with several reported cases of users far exceeding commonly used dosing limits without lasting adverse physical effects. It is also observed to have a low addiction potential. It is a stimulating psychedelic, and therefore it's important to remain hydrated. Refer to [[Psychedelics#Harm_Reduction|Psychedelic Harm Reduction]] for more information.

== Legal Status ==

* Denmark: 2C-D is added to the list of Schedule B controlled substances.

* Sweden: Sveriges riksdags health ministry Statens folkhälsoinstitut classified 2C-D as "health hazard" under the act Lagen om förbud mot vissa hälsofarliga varor (translated Act on the Prohibition of Certain Goods Dangerous to Health) as of March 1, 2005, in their regulation SFS 2005:26 listed as 2,5-dimetoxi-4-metylfenetylamin (2C-D), making it illegal to sell or possess.

* United States: [http://www.justice.gov/dea/druginfo/ds.shtml Schedule I] (Illegal to produce, supply, or possess)

== Links ==

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2C-D Wikipedia]

[https://www.erowid.org/chemicals/2cd/2cd.shtml 2C-D Erowid Vault]

[http://www.erowid.org/library/books_online/pihkal/pihkal023.shtml PiHKAL entry]

[[Category:Drugs]]
[[Category:Psychedelic]]
[[Category:Research Chemical]]

2C-B

2016-09-19T17:25:31Z

Dread: factsheet relative dosage table

[[File:2cb.jpg|thumb|150px|2C-B vial and powder]]

'''2C-B''' is a [[Psychedelics|psychedelic]] drug of the [[2C-X|2C-X family]].
Effects are often described as being more easily managed than other psychedelics; it is often compared to a mixture of a LSD and MDMA.
2C-B is also known for the strong body component of its effects which are alternately described as pleasurable energy or a 'sense of being in the body,' and by others as an unpleasant 'buzzing' or body-load, which is mostly occurring during onset. Users also report open eye visuals in the form of colour distortions, melting like hallucinations, and other minor visual psychedelic effects.

== History ==
2C-B was first synthesized in 1974 by Alexander Shulgin, and it first saw use among the psychiatric community as an aid during therapy. It was considered one of the best drugs for this purpose because of its short duration, relative absence of side effects, and comparably mild nature. Shortly after becoming popular in the medical community, it became popular recreationally. 2C-B was first sold commercially as an aphrodisiac under the trade name "Eros", which was manufactured by the German pharmaceutical company Drittewelle. From many years after it was available as tablets in Dutch smart shops under the name "Nexus".

== Dosage ==
'''NOTE: DO NOT TAKE THE BELOW DOSING INFORMATION AS A KNOW ALL, PLEASE TAKE CAUTION, AND REMEMBER THAT YOU CAN ALWAYS TAKE MORE, BUT NEVER LESS.'''

{{#tdose: 2cb }}

== Duration ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oral
|-
| Onset || 20-75 minutes
|-
| Total || 4-8 hours
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Insufflated
|-
| Onset || 1-15 minutes
|-
| Total || 4-8 hours
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Rectal
|-
| Onset || 5-20 minutes
|-
| Total || 4-8 hours
|}

== Effects ==
=== Positive ===

* Euphoria

* Giggling

* Empathy

* Personal Insight

* Enhanced Colours

* Closed and Open Eye Visuals

* Enhanced Tactile Sensation

=== Neutral ===

* Decreased Appetite

* Pupil Dilation

* Time Dilation

=== Negative ===

* Restlessness

* Sweating/Chills

* Nausea

* Insomnia

* Muscle Tension

* Confusion

== Aliases ==

* Bees

* Nexus

== Chemistry and Pharmacology ==
Systematic name: 2-(4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine

Unlike most hallucinogens, 2C-B has been shown to be a low efficacy serotonin 5-HT2A receptor partial agonist or even full antagonist. This suggests that the 5-HT2C receptor is primarily responsible for mediating the effects experienced by users of 2C-B, although functional antagonism of 5-HT2A or activation of the 5-HT2A-coupled phospholipase D pathway may also play a role. The rank order of receptorantagonist potency for this family of drugs is 2C-I > 2C-B > 2C-D > 2C-H.

Research suggests that 2C-B increases dopamine levels in the brains of rats, which may contribute to its psychoactivity.

== Harm Reduction ==

2C-B is known as one of the safer psychedelics, with several reported cases of users far exceeding commonly used dosing limits without lasting adverse physical effects. It is also observed to have a low addiction potential. It is a stimulating psychedelic, and therefore it's important to remain hydrated. Refer to [[Psychedelics#Harm_Reduction|Psychedelic Harm Reduction]] for more information.

Do not take heroic doses thinking that 2C-B is one of the "safer psychedelics".

=== Interactions ===

2C-B increases dopamine levels and also has an effect on serotonin. Therefore, 2C-B may react negatively with serotonic drugs like anti-depressants and tramadol.

== Legal Status ==
Internationally, 2C-B is a Schedule II drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. In the Netherlands, 2C-B became a list I substance of the Opium Law despite no health incidents occurring. Following the ban, other phenethylamines were sold in place of 2C-B until the Netherlands became the first country in the world to ban 2C-I, 2C-T-2 and 2C-T-7 alongside 2C-B.

* UK: Class A (Along with all the others in the [[2C-X|2C-X family]]. (Illegal to produce, supply, or possess.))

* United States: [http://www.justice.gov/dea/druginfo/ds.shtml Schedule I] (Illegal to produce, supply, or possess.)

== Links ==

* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2C-B Wikipedia]
* [https://www.erowid.org/chemicals/2cb/2cb.shtml 2C-B Erowid Vault]

[[Category:Drugs]]
[[Category:Psychedelic]]

Cannabis

2016-09-10T21:34:41Z

Dread: Added dosage table taking data from factsheet API.

Cannabis

2016-09-09T21:23:55Z

Dread: Taxonomy section removed as plagiarised from Wikipedia. Original work section on Cannabis history added.

UserWiki:Dread

2016-09-06T00:34:53Z

Dread: import user wiki

Rhodendrons

2016-09-06T00:26:31Z

Dread:

The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications'' details an account of some psychoactive species of Rhodedendrons:

<blockquote>

The Osset live in the mountains of the northern Caucasus and are thought to be later descendants of the ancient Scythians. The Oriental scholar Julius Klaproth visited the Osset during the nineteenth century and returned with a description of a divination ritual in which the Caucasus rhododendron (whether the botanical identification is correct remains open) was used as a psychoactive incense (Klaproth 1823,2:223 f.): He described their ardent devotion to the prophet Elias, who was regarded as their greatest protector. In caves consecrated to him, they [the Osset] offered goats and consumed their flesh; after which they spread the skins out under a large tree and honored these in a special fashion on the prophet's feast day so that he would keep away the hail and grant them a bountiful harvest. The Osset would often go to these caves to inebriate themselves on the smoke of Rhododendron caucasicum, which would cause them to sleep deeply. The dreams that appeared to them under these circumstances were interpreted as prophecies. (Ginzburg 1990, 165) The Caucasus rhododendron (section Pontica) is a broad bush that grows to only about 1 meter in height. The flowers are creamy or pale yellow, sometimes with pink spots. The plant typically blooms from April to May and is found primarily at an altitude between 1,800 and 2,700 meters. It is found across northeastern Turkey and the Caucasus Mountains (Cox 1985, 175). Its evergreen leaves are weakly aromatic. Rhododendron caucasicum is only rarely encountered in rhododendron gardens, for it is much more difficult to cultivate than are other species.

In Nepal, the closely related Rhododendron lepidotum is still used today as a ritual and shamanic incense, the effects of which are very subtle. In Tibet and China, other rhododendron species are also used as incense. The yellow-flowered Rhododendron cinnabarinum is found in the high mountains of Sikkim.
Its smoke is said to have a profound effect on yaks, producing a strong inebriation and altering their behavior. It is possible that it also has psychoactive effects upon humans.
In Nepal, the leaves of a Rhododendron species are mixed with tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) for smoking. A snuff is made from the bark of a Rhododendron species and tobacco leaves.

Other rhododendron species, e.g., the rustyleaved alpine rose (Rhododendron ferrugineum 1.) and the Pontic rhododendron (Rhododendron ponticum 1.), yield psychoactive/toxic honey.

The Tartars made a tea from the leaves (ten or more) of the gold-yellow alpine rose (Rhododendron chrysanthum) that is said to have produced a state of inebriation (Roth et al 1994, 612*). There is also a cultivar, Rhododendron x sochadzeae, resulting from a cross between R. ponticum and R. caucasicum (Cox 1985, 175 f.). This rare ornamental variety may have potent psychoactive effects.

The aromatic species of rhododendron contain relatively high concentrations of essential oil. Mongolian species contain primarily limonene, aromadendrene, caryophyllene, d-candinene, r3selinene, and gurjunene (Satar 1985).

It is would be an interesting task to investigate a possible cultural link between rhododendron forests and psilocybin mushrooms. Rhododendron groves are a preferred habitat of some psychoactive mushrooms, e.g., Psilocybe cyanescens.

</blockquote>

[[Category:Ethnobotanical]]

Lichen

2016-09-06T00:03:25Z

Dread: I edited this page because I can't find any evidence that the cited study actually exists, the closest thing I could find was a decidedly dodgy comment by Shulgin, an old book that cited the same nonexistent paper, and a bunch of new age sites talking...

Lichens are composite organisms composed of either or both algae and cyanobacteria which grow on rocks and tree bark. It has been suggested, by Alexander Shulgin and others, that Lichens may contain analogues of N,N-DMT.
[[Category:Ethnobotanical]]

Anomala

2016-09-05T23:48:43Z

Dread:

The dried root of the manioc species ''Manihot anomala'', known as sienejna, is used by the Ayoreo Indians of Paraguay to initiate a ''naijna'' (shaman), allowing communication with the spirits.<ref name="Schmeda-Hirschmann">Schmeda-Hirshmann, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037887419390025Z "Magic and medicinal plants of the Ayoreos of the Chaco Boreal (Paraguay)"], ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'', June 1993. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Not all of the Ayoreo believe that this plant works, however it is said that the shaman feels effects similar to drunkenness when sienejna is smoked. In this state, the spirits of the animals (especially those of iguanas, poisonous snakes, and birds) meet him in the shape of small people so that they may let him know of their whereabouts.<ref name="Schmeda-Hirschmann"/>
Smoking experiments, however, have not revealed any type of hallucinogenic or other psychotropic effect.<ref name="Schmeda-Hirschmann"/> Further study is required.

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Ethnobotanical]]

Anomala

2016-09-05T23:45:28Z

Dread: Reworded, reformatted, added citation to original 1993 study by Schmeda-Hirshmann.

The dried root of the manioc species ''Manihot anomala'', known as sienejna, is used by the Ayoreo Indians of Paraguay to initiate a ''naijna'' (shaman), allowing communication with the spirits.<ref>Schmeda-Hirshmann, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037887419390025Z "Magic and medicinal plants of the Ayoreos of the Chaco Boreal (Paraguay)"], ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'', June 1993. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Not all of the Ayoreo believe that this plant works, however it is said that the shaman feels effects similar to drunkenness when sienejna is smoked. In this state, the spirits of the animals (especially those of iguanas, poisonous snakes, and birds) meet him in the shape of small people so that they may let him know of their whereabouts.<ref>Schmeda-Hirshmann, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037887419390025Z "Magic and medicinal plants of the Ayoreos of the Chaco Boreal (Paraguay)"], ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'', June 1993. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Smoking experiments, however, have not revealed any type of hallucinogenic or other psychotropic effect.<ref>Schmeda-Hirshmann, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037887419390025Z "Magic and medicinal plants of the Ayoreos of the Chaco Boreal (Paraguay)"], ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'', June 1993. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref> Further study is required.

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Ethnobotanical]]

User:Dread

2016-09-05T23:02:58Z

Dread:

User:Dread

2016-09-05T22:49:42Z

Dread:

My name is Dread, I am a member of the Tripsit content team.

If you wish to contact me, I am ever-present on the Tripsit IRC network. Queries regarding content can be made in the #content room. If you wish to communicate with me in private it is possible to PM me, please use OTR if you have the technical aptitude.

Alternatively I can be emailed at dread@tripsit.me. PGP encryption is highly advised, my public key is as follows:

<code>
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Cannabis

2016-09-05T22:18:40Z

Dread:

[[File:Nug.jpg|thumb|400px|Cannabis bud, commonly referred to as a 'nug.']]

Cannabis, commonly known in some regions as Marijuana, and by various colloquial names, refers to a genus of plants indigenous to Central and South Asia.<ref>Mahmoud A. ElSohly, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fxoJPVNKYUgC&pg=PA8&redir_esc=y&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false "Marijuana and the Cannabinoids"], ''Springer Science & Business Media'', 15 Nov 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2016.</ref> The genus is scientifically subdivided into three species, Ruderalis, Indica and Sativa<ref>Karl Hillig, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226862901_Genetic_Evidence_for_Speciation_in_Cannabis_Cannabaceae "Genetic Evidence for Speciation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae)"], ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'', January 2005. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>, however there is little scientific consensus on taxonomy and often little correlation between scientific classification and commercial descriptions of strains as 'Sativa' or 'Indica'. Commercial psychoactive strains of Cannabis are typically hybrids of Sativa, Indica and/or Ruderalis.<ref>[https://www.cannabisreports.com/news/2015/07/08/beyond-indica-and-sativa-a-greater-understanding-of-cannabis-genetics/ "Beyond Indica and Sativa: A Greater Understanding of Cannabis Genetics"], ''The Cannabis Reporter'', 8th July 2015. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Whilst the Cannabis plant has various uses in production of fibres, it is most well known today for its psychoactive effects. Various desirable sensations are reported in individuals who have consumed cannabis, such as euphoria, relaxation, and sleepiness. Adverse effects include decreased short term memory, dryness of the oral cavity ("Cotton-mouth"), impaired motor skills and reddening of the eyes. Occasionally, cannabis can produce anxiety, panic, or paranoia. Rarely, cannabis has been implicated in the development of acute psychosis.<ref>MedlinePlus, [https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000952.htm "Marijuana intoxication"], ''U.S. National Library of Medicine''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref> [http://drugs.tripsit.me/cannabis A full range of effects can be found on the Tripsit Factsheets.]

The primary psychoactive agent in cannabis is believed to be tetrahydrocannabinol, however the drug contains at least 65 other cannabinoids, and 485 compounds have been identified thus far in cannabis. The extent to which these compounds produce psychoactive effects is a matter of ongoing research.<ref>Ethan B Russo, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qH-2Lj9x7L4C&pg=PP28&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false "Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential"], ''Routledge'', 24 April 2002. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Cannabis can be consumed in a variety of ways, such as smoking, vaporisation, consumption as part of foods and in extracts. <ref>Baggio et al., [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24119417 "Routes of administration of cannabis used for nonmedical purposes and associations with patterns of drug use."], ''J Adolesc Health'', February 2014. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Cannabis has been used throughout history as both a recreational drug, medicine and spiritual aid. 128 to 232 million people used cannabis (2.7% to 4.9% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65) in 2013, making it the most commonly used illicit drug on Earth.<ref>UNODC, [http://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr2015/WDR15_Drug_use_health_consequences.pdf "STATUS AND TREND ANALYSIS OF ILLICT (sic) DRUG MARKETS "], ''UNODC'', 2013. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Despite this high usage, Cannabis remains prohibited to various extents throughout most jurisdictions.<ref>Erowid, [https://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_law.shtml "Cannabis Legal Status"], ''Erowid''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref><ref>UNODC, [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2010.html "World Drug Report 2010"], ''UNODC'', 2010. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref> The extent to which laws prohibiting cannabis usage are enforced varies worldwide.

In recent times there have been developments in the legal use of cannabis as a medication for various ailments. Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, and 23 U.S. states have made medicinal cannabis usage legal. <ref> [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_and_medical_status_of_cannabis "Legal and Medical Status of Cannabis"], ''Wikipedia''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

== Etymology==
The word 'Cannabis' appears to derive from the Greek 'kannabis', a loanword from Scythia or Thrace, where it was used to refer to the hemp plant. It has been in use in English to refer to 'common hemp', the variant of the plant used to create fibres, from 1798, and in reference to the psychoactive usage of the plant from 1848. It may have provided the origin for the words 'hemp' and 'canvas'.<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cannabis "cannabis (n.)"], ''Etymonline''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

=== Taxonomy ===
The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the Nettle (Urticaceae) or Mulberry (Moraceae) family, but is now considered along with hops (Humulus sp.) to belong to the Hemp family (Cannabaceae). Recent phylogenetic studies based on cpDNA restriction site analysis and gene sequencing strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae arose from within the Celtidaceae clade, and that the two families should be merged to form a single monophyletic group.

Various types of Cannabis have been described, and classified as species, subspecies, or varieties:

* Plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types.
* Plants cultivated for drug production, described as high-intoxicant or drug types.
* Escaped or wild forms of either of the above types.

Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, which produce the "high" one experiences from smoking marijuana. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early 1970s, Cannabis plants have been categorized by their chemical phenotype or "chemotype," based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD. Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant. Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F1) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce similar amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.

Top of Cannabis plant in vegetative growth stage.

Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species. One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups." Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species. Physiological barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within Cannabis, and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile. However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation. It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.

Cannabis has long been used for fibre (hemp), for medicinal purposes, and as a recreational drug. Industrial hemp products are made from Cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber and minimal levels of THC (Δ9- tetrahydrocannabinol), a psychoactive molecule that produces the "high" associated with marijuana. The psychoactive product consists of dried flowers and leaves of plants selected to produce high levels of THC. Various extracts including hashish and hash oil are also produced from the plant.

==== Early classifications ====
The Cannabis genus was first classified using the "modern" system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species. He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named Cannabis sativa L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica Lam. Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described C. indica as having poorer fiber quality than C. sativa, but greater utility as an inebriant. Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin. However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias, and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.

==== 20th Century ====
In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C. sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch. and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. as alternative names. In 1929, renowned plant explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var. kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav. In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they recognized two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. culta Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and C. sativa L. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. sativa subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies culta. However, they did not divide C. indica into subspecies or varieties. This excessive splitting of C. sativa proved too unwieldy, and never gained many adherents.

In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the United States and Canada specifically named products of C. sativa as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. sativa, and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity. The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.

In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. sativa, and C. sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq. The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a result of human selection; C. sativa subsp. sativa was presumably selected for traits that enhance fiber or seed production, whereas C. sativa subsp. indica was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant Cannabis, and C. sativa subsp. indica var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters.

Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the 1970s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis. For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis is monotypic, with only a single species. According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug strains from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.

==== Continuing research ====
Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late twentieth century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis, primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes. Dutch Cannabis researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an "extremely high" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars. They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the Cannabis gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus comprises a single species, although theirs was not a systematic study per se.

Karl W. Hillig, a graduate student in the laboratory of long-time Cannabis researcher Paul G. Mahlberg at Indiana University, conducted a systematic investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations. In 2004, Hillig and Mahlberg published a chemotaxomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in their Cannabis germplasm collection. They used gas chromatography to determine cannabinoid content and to infer allele frequencies of the gene that controls CBD and THC production within the studied populations, and concluded that the patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, but not C. ruderalis. The authors assigned fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. indica. In 2005, Hillig published a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions (this paper was the first in the series, but was delayed in publication), and proposed a three-species classification, recognizing C. sativa, C. indica, and (tentatively) C. ruderalis. In his doctoral dissertation published the same year, Hillig stated that principal components analysis of phenotypic (morphological) traits failed to differentiate the putative species, but that canonical variates analysis resulted in a high degree of discrimination of the putative species and infraspecific taxa. Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of certain sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa. Hillig concluded that the patterns of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. He also concluded there is little support to treat C. ruderalis as a separate species from C. sativa at this time, but more research on wild and weedy populations is needed because they were underrepresented in their collection.

In September 2005, New Scientist reported that researchers at the Canberra Institute of Technology had identified a new type of Cannabis based on analysis of mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA. The New Scientist story, which was picked up by many news agencies and web sites, indicated that the research was to be published in the journal Forensic Science International. When the article was finally published, there was no mention of "Rasta."

== Usage ==
[[File:Groundc.jpg|thumb|400px|Cannabis is often ground up finely before use.]]
The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. "Sativa" is the term used to describe the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. "Indica" is used to designate shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. "Ruderalis" is the term used to describe the short plants that grow wild in Europe and central Asia.

Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as "pure indica," "mostly indica," "indica/sativa," "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa."

=== Reproduction ===
Cannabis is predominantly dioecious, although many monoecious varieties have been described. Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread. Many populations have been described as sexually labile.
Cannabis flower with visible trichomes.
Male Cannabis pollen sacs.

As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar. Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where typically the female flowers are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops. However, the so-called "sativa" drug strains often produce monoecious individuals, probably as a result of inbreeding.
Mechanisms of sex determination

Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants. Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis.

Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an XY sex-determination system is present. At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925. Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation, and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.

Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants. Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.

Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage type".
A male hemp plant.
Dense raceme of carpellate flowers typical of drug-type varieties of Cannabis.

The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see History of Cytogenetics). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious "Kentucky" hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious "Kentucky" hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious "Kentucky" hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX. According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996. Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically.

More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors have used RAPD to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and AFLP. Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating,

"It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination."

Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species. Many researchers have suggested that sex in Cannabis is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors. Ainsworth reviews that treatment with auxin and ethylene have feminizing effects, and that treatment with cytokinins and gibberellins have masculinizing effects. It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment. A PCR-based method for the detection of female-associated DNA polymorphisms by genotyping has been developed.
Industrial and personal uses

=== Hemp ===

Hemp is the natural, durable soft fiber from the stalk of Cannabis sativa plants that grow upwards of 20 feet tall. Cannabis plants used for hemp production are not valued for recreational uses as the plants that are cultivated for hemp produce minimal levels of THC, analogous to attempting to get drunk from low-alcohol beer. Cannabis plants intended for any drug cultivation cannot be hidden in a hemp field either, as the size and height of each are significantly different.

Hemp producers sell hemp seeds as a health food, as they are rich in heart-healthy, essential fatty acids, amino acids (both essential and nonessential), vitamins and minerals. Hemp "milk" is a milk substitute also made from hemp seeds that is both dairy and gluten-free.

Hemp is fairly easy to grow and matures very fast compared to many crops, most notably trees used for paper. Compared to cotton for clothing, hemp cloth is known to be of superior strength and longer-lasting. The fibers may also be used to form cordage for industrial-strength ropes. Hemp plants also require little pesticides and herbicides due to its height, density and foliage. This also makes the hemp plant very environmentally-friendly.

Hemp can be utilized for 25,000 very durable textile products, ranging from paper and clothing to biofuels (from the oils found in the seeds), medicines and construction material. Hemp has been used by many civilizations, from China to Europe (and later North America) for the last 12,000 years of history.
Recreational use
Comparison of physical harm and dependence regarding various drugs (the British medical journal The Lancet).
Main article: Cannabis (drug)
See also: Tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabidiol, and Effects of cannabis

Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, only behind alcohol, caffeine and tobacco. In the United States alone, it is believed that over 100 million Americans have tried Cannabis, with 25 million Americans using it within the past year.

The psychoactive effects of Cannabis are known to have a biphasic nature. Primary psychoactive effects include a state of relaxation, and to a lesser degree, euphoria from its main psychoactive compound, tetrahydrocannabinol. Secondary psychoactive effects, such as a facility for philosophical thinking; introspection and metacognition have been reported, amongst cases of anxiety and paranoia. Finally, the tertiary psychoactive effects of the drug cannabis, can include an increase in heart rate and hunger, believed to be caused by 11-Hydroxy-THC, a psychoactive metabolite of THC produced in the liver.

Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a smoking pipe, bong or vaporizer. However, if a large amount is taken orally the effects may last much longer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug.

Various forms of the drug cannabis exist, including extracts such as hashish and hash oil which, due to appearance, are more susceptible to adulterants when left unregulated.

The plant Cannabis sativa is known to cause more of a "high" by stimulating hunger and by producing a rather more comedic, or energetic feeling. Conversely, the Cannabis indica plant is known to cause more of a "stoned" type of feeling, possibly due to a higher CBD to THC ratio.

Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no psychotropic effects by itself] (although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to caffeine),[citation needed] attenuates, or reduces the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone.

According to the UK medical journal The Lancet, Cannabis has a lower rate of dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. However, everyday use of Cannabis can in some cases, be correlated with some psychological withdrawal symptoms such as irritability, and insomnia and evidence could suggest that if a user experiences stress, the likeliness of getting a panic attack increases due to an increase of THC metabolites. However, any Cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never life-threatening.

=== Medical use ===
A synthetic form of the main psychoactive cannabinoid in Cannabis, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is used as a treatment for a wide range of medical conditions.

In the United States, although the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does acknowledge that "there has been considerable interest in its use for the treatment of a number of conditions, including glaucoma, AIDS wasting, neuropathic pain, treatment of spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis, and chemotherapy-induced nausea," the agency has not approved "medical marijuana". There are currently 2 oral forms of cannabis (cannabinoids) available by prescription in the United States for nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy: dronabinol (Marinol) and nabilone (Cesamet). Dronabinol is also approved for the treatment of anorexia associated with AIDS. The FDA does facilitate scientific investigations into the medical uses of cannabinoids.

In a collection of writings on medical marijuana by 45 researchers, a literature review on the medicinal uses of Cannabis and cannabinoids concluded that established uses include easing of nausea and vomiting, anorexia, and weight loss; "well-confirmed effect" was found in the treatment of spasticity, painful conditions (i.e. neurogenic pain), movement disorders, asthma, and glaucoma. Reported but "less-confirmed" effects included treatment of allergies, inflammation, infection, epilepsy, depression, bipolar disorders, anxiety disorder, dependency and withdrawal. Basic level research was being carried out at the time on autoimmune disease, cancer, neuroprotection, fever, disorders of blood pressure.

Clinical trials conducted by the American Marijuana Policy Project, have shown the efficacy of cannabis as a treatment for cancer and AIDS patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to chemotherapy and other aggressive treatments. A synthetic version of the cannabinoid THC named dronabinol has been shown to relieve symptoms of anorexia and reduce agitation in elderly Alzheimer's patients. Dronabinol has been approved for use with anorexia in patients with HIV/AIDS and chemotherapy-related nausea. This drug, while demonstrating the effectiveness of Cannabis at combating several disorders, is more expensive and less available than whole cannabis and has not been shown to be effective or safe.

Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some studies have shown a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke cannabis, but the effects are generally short-lived. There exists some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor. Although Cannabis may not be the best therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB receptors can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.

Medical cannabis is also used for analgesia, or pain relief. It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder. Case reports have found that Cannabis can relieve tics in people with obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive chemical found in Cannabis, reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more. Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found. A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in Cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease. THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.

Another potential use for medical cannabis is movement disorders. Cannabis is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasms associated with multiple sclerosis; this has been acknowledged by the Institute of Medicine, but it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies suggests that there is a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures. A synthetic version of the major active compound in Cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol) in many countries. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

=== Religious use ===
Cannabis is first referred to in Hindu Vedas between 2000 and 1400 BCE, in the Atharvaveda. By the 10 century CE, it was being referred to in India as "food of the gods". Cannabis use eventually became a ritual part of the Hindu festival of Holi. In Buddhism, cannabis has been used in meditation and regarded as a holy plant since 500 BCE. Shamanic use of Cannabis in China has been dated to at least 1000 BCE. In ancient Germanic culture, Cannabis was associated with the Norse love goddess, Freya. An anointing oil mentioned in Exodus is, by some translators, said to contain Cannabis. Sufis have used Cannabis in a spiritual context since the thirteenth century CE.

In modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced Cannabis as a sacrament. Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider Cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ, even though the movement was founded in the United States in 1975 and has no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church. Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that Cannabis is the Tree of Life. Other organized religions founded in the 20th century that treat Cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry, the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism, the Cannabis Assembly and the Church of Cognizance.

== Aspects of Cannabis production and use ==
Cannabis field seized by authorities.

* Cannabis cultivation discusses aspects of cultivation for medicinal and recreational drug purposes.
* Cannabis (drug) discusses its use as a recreational drug.
* Health issues and the effects of cannabis discusses the pharmacology, physical, and mental effects of Cannabis when used as drug.
* Hemp discusses its uses as a source of housing, oil, food, fibers, and industrial materials.
* Legality of cannabis focuses on the law and enforcement aspects of growing, transporting, selling and using Cannabis as a drug.
* Cannabis reclassification in the United Kingdom.
* Cannabis rescheduling in the United States.
* Drug policy of the Netherlands.
* Medical Cannabis discusses its use as a medication.
* Spiritual use of cannabis discusses sacramental and religious use.

== Dosage ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oral
|-
| Appetite Stimulation || 2.5mg
|-
| Appetite Stimulation (Chemotherapy) || 5mg (3x daily)
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Smoked
|-
| Light || 1/30g
|-
| Common (typical) || 2/30g
|-
| Strong || 3/30g
|}

== Duration ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oral
|-
| Onset || 30-120 minutes
|-
| Total || 4-10 hours
|-
| After-effects || 6-24 hours
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Smoked
|-
| Onset || 0-10 minutes
|-
| Total || 1-4 hours
|-
| After-effects || 2-24 hours
|}

== Effects ==
=== Positive ===
* Relaxation
* Analgesic (Painkiller)

=== Neutral ===
* Giggling
* Loss of inhibition

=== Negative ===
* Low carcinogenic risk when '''smoked''' (due to combustion of other materials)

== Harm Reduction ==

* The responsible cannabis user does not operate a motor vehicle or other dangerous machinery impaired by cannabis. Although cannabis is said by most experts to be safer than alcohol and many prescription drugs with motorists, public safety demands that impaired drivers be taken off the road and that objective measures of impairment be developed and used, rather than chemical testing.

* Cannabis consumption is for adults only. Many things and activities are suitable for young people, but others absolutely are not. Children do not drive cars, enter into contracts or marry, and they must not use drugs.

* The responsible cannabis user will carefully consider his/her setting and regulate use accordingly. The responsible cannabis consumer will be vigilant as to conditions -- time, place, mood, etc. -- and does not hesitate to say "no" when those conditions are not conducive to a safe, pleasant and/or productive experience.

* The responsible cannabis user does not violate the rights of others, observes accepted standards of courtesy and public propriety, and respects the preferences of those who wish to avoid cannabis entirely. Regardless of the legal status of cannabis, responsible users will adhere to emerging tobacco smoking protocols in public and private places.

* Recommended time (pauses) between using the substance

* Use of cannabis, to the extent that it impairs health, personal development or achievement, is abuse and should be resisted by responsible cannabis users. Abuse means harm. Some cannabis use is harmful; most is not. That which is harmful should be discouraged; that which is not need not be.

=== Research Chemicals ===

Cannabinoid research chemicals receive relatively frequent media coverage in cases of overdoses. This is generally because cannabinoids are often sold in blends without dosing information or sometimes even the active component - if you are looking to take cannabinoids in an informed manner, blends should be avoided unless accurate information is provided alongside it. When cannabinoids are bought in pure form, they are often active in the microgram range, and can be quite difficult to measure.

Overdoses of cannabinoids are generally known to cause hallucinatory experiences, which in turn often cause panic attacks. Larger overdoses may also cause heart issues. Repetitive heavy dosing of certain cannabinoids are suspected to cause organ damage.

See [[Research Chemicals]] for more information.

== Legal status ==

Both Cannabis and Tetrahydrocannabinols, the active chemicals contained in Cannabis plants, are Schedule I in the United States. This means they are federally illegal to cultivate, buy, possess, or distribute (sell, trade or give) in all forms (cannabis plants, extracts, hash, hash oil, thc, etc) except synthetic THC (Marinol) which is Schedule III.

Practically, simple possession of small amounts is almost never prosecuted federally.

The federal scheduling of Cannabis was disputed in 1988 by Judge Francis Young, an administrative law judge for the DEA, who recommended that marijuana be reclassified as schedule II on the grounds that if a respectable minority of doctors endorse it, then it has a "currently accepted medical use".

Cannabis has many reported medical uses and its active component is an approved drug in the US. The US government has, in the last 20 years, been forced to provide medical cannabis to 8 patients in the form of cannabis cigarettes although as a top level, federal policy has opposed any change in the status of cannabis to move it to a lower schedule. Over a dozen states now allow some provision for the medical use of cannabis, although only around 8 have effective protection (AK, CA, CO, HI, ME, NV, OR, WA).

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Depressant]]
[[Category:Drugs]]

Cannabis

2016-09-05T22:16:01Z

Dread: /* Research Chemicals */ Spelling of cannabinoid corrected

[[File:Nug.jpg|thumb|400px|Cannabis bud, commonly referred to as a 'nug.']]

Cannabis, commonly known in some regions as Marijuana, and by various colloquial names, refers to a genus of plants indigenous to Central and South Asia.<ref>Mahmoud A. ElSohly, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fxoJPVNKYUgC&pg=PA8&redir_esc=y&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false "Marijuana and the Cannabinoids"], ''Springer Science & Business Media'', 15 Nov 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2016.</ref> The genus is scientifically subdivided into three species, Ruderalis, Indica and Sativa<ref>Karl Hillig, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226862901_Genetic_Evidence_for_Speciation_in_Cannabis_Cannabaceae "Genetic Evidence for Speciation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae)"], ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'', January 2005. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>, however there is little scientific consensus on taxonomy and often little correlation between scientific classification and commercial descriptions of strains as 'Sativa' or 'Indica'. Commercial psychoactive strains of Cannabis are typically hybrids of Sativa, Indica and/or Ruderalis.<ref>[https://www.cannabisreports.com/news/2015/07/08/beyond-indica-and-sativa-a-greater-understanding-of-cannabis-genetics/ "Beyond Indica and Sativa: A Greater Understanding of Cannabis Genetics"], ''The Cannabis Reporter'', 8th July 2015. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Whilst the Cannabis plant has various uses in production of fibres, it is most well known today for its psychoactive effects. Various desirable sensations are reported in individuals who have consumed cannabis, such as euphoria, relaxation, and sleepiness. Adverse effects include decreased short term memory, dryness of the oral cavity ("Cotton-mouth"), impaired motor skills and reddening of the eyes. Occasionally, cannabis can produce anxiety, panic, or paranoia. Rarely, cannabis has been implicated in the development of acute psychosis.<ref>MedlinePlus, [https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000952.htm "Marijuana intoxication"], ''U.S. National Library of Medicine''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref> [http://drugs.tripsit.me/cannabis A full range of effects can be found on the Tripsit Factsheets.]

The primary psychoactive agent in cannabis is believed to be tetrahydrocannabinol, however the drug contains at least 65 other cannabinoids, and 485 compounds have been identified thus far in cannabis. The extent to which these compounds produce psychoactive effects is a matter of ongoing research.<ref>Ethan B Russo, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qH-2Lj9x7L4C&pg=PP28&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false "Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential"], ''Routledge'', 24 April 2002. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Cannabis can be consumed in a variety of ways, such as smoking, vaporisation, consumption as part of foods and in extracts. <ref>Baggio et al., [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24119417 "Routes of administration of cannabis used for nonmedical purposes and associations with patterns of drug use.
"], ''J Adolesc Health'', February 2014. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Cannabis has been used throughout history as both a recreational drug, medicine and spiritual aid. 128 to 232 million people used cannabis (2.7% to 4.9% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65) in 2013, making it the most commonly used illicit drug on Earth.<ref>UNODC, [http://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr2015/WDR15_Drug_use_health_consequences.pdf "STATUS AND TREND ANALYSIS OF ILLICT (sic) DRUG MARKETS "], ''UNODC'', 2013. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Despite this high usage, Cannabis remains prohibited to various extents throughout most jurisdictions.<ref>Erowid, [https://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_law.shtml "Cannabis Legal Status"], ''Erowid''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref><ref>UNODC, [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2010.html "World Drug Report 2010"], ''UNODC'', 2010. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref> The extent to which laws prohibiting cannabis usage are enforced varies worldwide.

In recent times there have been developments in the legal use of cannabis as a medication for various ailments. Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, and 23 U.S. states have made medicinal cannabis usage legal. <ref> [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_and_medical_status_of_cannabis "Legal and Medical Status of Cannabis"], ''Wikipedia''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

== Etymology==
The word 'Cannabis' appears to derive from the Greek 'kannabis', a loanword from Scythia or Thrace, where it was used to refer to the hemp plant. It has been in use in English to refer to 'common hemp', the variant of the plant used to create fibres, from 1798, and in reference to the psychoactive usage of the plant from 1848. It may have provided the origin for the words 'hemp' and 'canvas'.<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cannabis "cannabis (n.)"], ''Etymonline''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

=== Taxonomy ===
The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the Nettle (Urticaceae) or Mulberry (Moraceae) family, but is now considered along with hops (Humulus sp.) to belong to the Hemp family (Cannabaceae). Recent phylogenetic studies based on cpDNA restriction site analysis and gene sequencing strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae arose from within the Celtidaceae clade, and that the two families should be merged to form a single monophyletic group.

Various types of Cannabis have been described, and classified as species, subspecies, or varieties:

* Plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types.
* Plants cultivated for drug production, described as high-intoxicant or drug types.
* Escaped or wild forms of either of the above types.

Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, which produce the "high" one experiences from smoking marijuana. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early 1970s, Cannabis plants have been categorized by their chemical phenotype or "chemotype," based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD. Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant. Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F1) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce similar amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.

Top of Cannabis plant in vegetative growth stage.

Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species. One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups." Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species. Physiological barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within Cannabis, and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile. However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation. It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.

Cannabis has long been used for fibre (hemp), for medicinal purposes, and as a recreational drug. Industrial hemp products are made from Cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber and minimal levels of THC (Δ9- tetrahydrocannabinol), a psychoactive molecule that produces the "high" associated with marijuana. The psychoactive product consists of dried flowers and leaves of plants selected to produce high levels of THC. Various extracts including hashish and hash oil are also produced from the plant.

==== Early classifications ====
The Cannabis genus was first classified using the "modern" system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species. He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named Cannabis sativa L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica Lam. Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described C. indica as having poorer fiber quality than C. sativa, but greater utility as an inebriant. Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin. However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias, and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.

==== 20th Century ====
In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C. sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch. and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. as alternative names. In 1929, renowned plant explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var. kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav. In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they recognized two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. culta Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and C. sativa L. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. sativa subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies culta. However, they did not divide C. indica into subspecies or varieties. This excessive splitting of C. sativa proved too unwieldy, and never gained many adherents.

In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the United States and Canada specifically named products of C. sativa as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. sativa, and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity. The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.

In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. sativa, and C. sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq. The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a result of human selection; C. sativa subsp. sativa was presumably selected for traits that enhance fiber or seed production, whereas C. sativa subsp. indica was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant Cannabis, and C. sativa subsp. indica var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters.

Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the 1970s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis. For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis is monotypic, with only a single species. According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug strains from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.

==== Continuing research ====
Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late twentieth century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis, primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes. Dutch Cannabis researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an "extremely high" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars. They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the Cannabis gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus comprises a single species, although theirs was not a systematic study per se.

Karl W. Hillig, a graduate student in the laboratory of long-time Cannabis researcher Paul G. Mahlberg at Indiana University, conducted a systematic investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations. In 2004, Hillig and Mahlberg published a chemotaxomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in their Cannabis germplasm collection. They used gas chromatography to determine cannabinoid content and to infer allele frequencies of the gene that controls CBD and THC production within the studied populations, and concluded that the patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, but not C. ruderalis. The authors assigned fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. indica. In 2005, Hillig published a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions (this paper was the first in the series, but was delayed in publication), and proposed a three-species classification, recognizing C. sativa, C. indica, and (tentatively) C. ruderalis. In his doctoral dissertation published the same year, Hillig stated that principal components analysis of phenotypic (morphological) traits failed to differentiate the putative species, but that canonical variates analysis resulted in a high degree of discrimination of the putative species and infraspecific taxa. Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of certain sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa. Hillig concluded that the patterns of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. He also concluded there is little support to treat C. ruderalis as a separate species from C. sativa at this time, but more research on wild and weedy populations is needed because they were underrepresented in their collection.

In September 2005, New Scientist reported that researchers at the Canberra Institute of Technology had identified a new type of Cannabis based on analysis of mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA. The New Scientist story, which was picked up by many news agencies and web sites, indicated that the research was to be published in the journal Forensic Science International. When the article was finally published, there was no mention of "Rasta."

== Usage ==
[[File:Groundc.jpg|thumb|400px|Cannabis is often ground up finely before use.]]
The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. "Sativa" is the term used to describe the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. "Indica" is used to designate shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. "Ruderalis" is the term used to describe the short plants that grow wild in Europe and central Asia.

Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as "pure indica," "mostly indica," "indica/sativa," "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa."

=== Reproduction ===
Cannabis is predominantly dioecious, although many monoecious varieties have been described. Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread. Many populations have been described as sexually labile.
Cannabis flower with visible trichomes.
Male Cannabis pollen sacs.

As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar. Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where typically the female flowers are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops. However, the so-called "sativa" drug strains often produce monoecious individuals, probably as a result of inbreeding.
Mechanisms of sex determination

Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants. Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis.

Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an XY sex-determination system is present. At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925. Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation, and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.

Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants. Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.

Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage type".
A male hemp plant.
Dense raceme of carpellate flowers typical of drug-type varieties of Cannabis.

The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see History of Cytogenetics). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious "Kentucky" hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious "Kentucky" hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious "Kentucky" hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX. According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996. Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically.

More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors have used RAPD to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and AFLP. Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating,

"It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination."

Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species. Many researchers have suggested that sex in Cannabis is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors. Ainsworth reviews that treatment with auxin and ethylene have feminizing effects, and that treatment with cytokinins and gibberellins have masculinizing effects. It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment. A PCR-based method for the detection of female-associated DNA polymorphisms by genotyping has been developed.
Industrial and personal uses

=== Hemp ===

Hemp is the natural, durable soft fiber from the stalk of Cannabis sativa plants that grow upwards of 20 feet tall. Cannabis plants used for hemp production are not valued for recreational uses as the plants that are cultivated for hemp produce minimal levels of THC, analogous to attempting to get drunk from low-alcohol beer. Cannabis plants intended for any drug cultivation cannot be hidden in a hemp field either, as the size and height of each are significantly different.

Hemp producers sell hemp seeds as a health food, as they are rich in heart-healthy, essential fatty acids, amino acids (both essential and nonessential), vitamins and minerals. Hemp "milk" is a milk substitute also made from hemp seeds that is both dairy and gluten-free.

Hemp is fairly easy to grow and matures very fast compared to many crops, most notably trees used for paper. Compared to cotton for clothing, hemp cloth is known to be of superior strength and longer-lasting. The fibers may also be used to form cordage for industrial-strength ropes. Hemp plants also require little pesticides and herbicides due to its height, density and foliage. This also makes the hemp plant very environmentally-friendly.

Hemp can be utilized for 25,000 very durable textile products, ranging from paper and clothing to biofuels (from the oils found in the seeds), medicines and construction material. Hemp has been used by many civilizations, from China to Europe (and later North America) for the last 12,000 years of history.
Recreational use
Comparison of physical harm and dependence regarding various drugs (the British medical journal The Lancet).
Main article: Cannabis (drug)
See also: Tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabidiol, and Effects of cannabis

Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, only behind alcohol, caffeine and tobacco. In the United States alone, it is believed that over 100 million Americans have tried Cannabis, with 25 million Americans using it within the past year.

The psychoactive effects of Cannabis are known to have a biphasic nature. Primary psychoactive effects include a state of relaxation, and to a lesser degree, euphoria from its main psychoactive compound, tetrahydrocannabinol. Secondary psychoactive effects, such as a facility for philosophical thinking; introspection and metacognition have been reported, amongst cases of anxiety and paranoia. Finally, the tertiary psychoactive effects of the drug cannabis, can include an increase in heart rate and hunger, believed to be caused by 11-Hydroxy-THC, a psychoactive metabolite of THC produced in the liver.

Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a smoking pipe, bong or vaporizer. However, if a large amount is taken orally the effects may last much longer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug.

Various forms of the drug cannabis exist, including extracts such as hashish and hash oil which, due to appearance, are more susceptible to adulterants when left unregulated.

The plant Cannabis sativa is known to cause more of a "high" by stimulating hunger and by producing a rather more comedic, or energetic feeling. Conversely, the Cannabis indica plant is known to cause more of a "stoned" type of feeling, possibly due to a higher CBD to THC ratio.

Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no psychotropic effects by itself] (although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to caffeine),[citation needed] attenuates, or reduces the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone.

According to the UK medical journal The Lancet, Cannabis has a lower rate of dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. However, everyday use of Cannabis can in some cases, be correlated with some psychological withdrawal symptoms such as irritability, and insomnia and evidence could suggest that if a user experiences stress, the likeliness of getting a panic attack increases due to an increase of THC metabolites. However, any Cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never life-threatening.

=== Medical use ===
A synthetic form of the main psychoactive cannabinoid in Cannabis, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is used as a treatment for a wide range of medical conditions.

In the United States, although the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does acknowledge that "there has been considerable interest in its use for the treatment of a number of conditions, including glaucoma, AIDS wasting, neuropathic pain, treatment of spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis, and chemotherapy-induced nausea," the agency has not approved "medical marijuana". There are currently 2 oral forms of cannabis (cannabinoids) available by prescription in the United States for nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy: dronabinol (Marinol) and nabilone (Cesamet). Dronabinol is also approved for the treatment of anorexia associated with AIDS. The FDA does facilitate scientific investigations into the medical uses of cannabinoids.

In a collection of writings on medical marijuana by 45 researchers, a literature review on the medicinal uses of Cannabis and cannabinoids concluded that established uses include easing of nausea and vomiting, anorexia, and weight loss; "well-confirmed effect" was found in the treatment of spasticity, painful conditions (i.e. neurogenic pain), movement disorders, asthma, and glaucoma. Reported but "less-confirmed" effects included treatment of allergies, inflammation, infection, epilepsy, depression, bipolar disorders, anxiety disorder, dependency and withdrawal. Basic level research was being carried out at the time on autoimmune disease, cancer, neuroprotection, fever, disorders of blood pressure.

Clinical trials conducted by the American Marijuana Policy Project, have shown the efficacy of cannabis as a treatment for cancer and AIDS patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to chemotherapy and other aggressive treatments. A synthetic version of the cannabinoid THC named dronabinol has been shown to relieve symptoms of anorexia and reduce agitation in elderly Alzheimer's patients. Dronabinol has been approved for use with anorexia in patients with HIV/AIDS and chemotherapy-related nausea. This drug, while demonstrating the effectiveness of Cannabis at combating several disorders, is more expensive and less available than whole cannabis and has not been shown to be effective or safe.

Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some studies have shown a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke cannabis, but the effects are generally short-lived. There exists some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor. Although Cannabis may not be the best therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB receptors can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.

Medical cannabis is also used for analgesia, or pain relief. It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder. Case reports have found that Cannabis can relieve tics in people with obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive chemical found in Cannabis, reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more. Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found. A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in Cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease. THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.

Another potential use for medical cannabis is movement disorders. Cannabis is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasms associated with multiple sclerosis; this has been acknowledged by the Institute of Medicine, but it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies suggests that there is a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures. A synthetic version of the major active compound in Cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol) in many countries. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

=== Religious use ===
Cannabis is first referred to in Hindu Vedas between 2000 and 1400 BCE, in the Atharvaveda. By the 10 century CE, it was being referred to in India as "food of the gods". Cannabis use eventually became a ritual part of the Hindu festival of Holi. In Buddhism, cannabis has been used in meditation and regarded as a holy plant since 500 BCE. Shamanic use of Cannabis in China has been dated to at least 1000 BCE. In ancient Germanic culture, Cannabis was associated with the Norse love goddess, Freya. An anointing oil mentioned in Exodus is, by some translators, said to contain Cannabis. Sufis have used Cannabis in a spiritual context since the thirteenth century CE.

In modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced Cannabis as a sacrament. Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider Cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ, even though the movement was founded in the United States in 1975 and has no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church. Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that Cannabis is the Tree of Life. Other organized religions founded in the 20th century that treat Cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry, the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism, the Cannabis Assembly and the Church of Cognizance.

== Aspects of Cannabis production and use ==
Cannabis field seized by authorities.

* Cannabis cultivation discusses aspects of cultivation for medicinal and recreational drug purposes.
* Cannabis (drug) discusses its use as a recreational drug.
* Health issues and the effects of cannabis discusses the pharmacology, physical, and mental effects of Cannabis when used as drug.
* Hemp discusses its uses as a source of housing, oil, food, fibers, and industrial materials.
* Legality of cannabis focuses on the law and enforcement aspects of growing, transporting, selling and using Cannabis as a drug.
* Cannabis reclassification in the United Kingdom.
* Cannabis rescheduling in the United States.
* Drug policy of the Netherlands.
* Medical Cannabis discusses its use as a medication.
* Spiritual use of cannabis discusses sacramental and religious use.

== Dosage ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oral
|-
| Appetite Stimulation || 2.5mg
|-
| Appetite Stimulation (Chemotherapy) || 5mg (3x daily)
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Smoked
|-
| Light || 1/30g
|-
| Common (typical) || 2/30g
|-
| Strong || 3/30g
|}

== Duration ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oral
|-
| Onset || 30-120 minutes
|-
| Total || 4-10 hours
|-
| After-effects || 6-24 hours
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Smoked
|-
| Onset || 0-10 minutes
|-
| Total || 1-4 hours
|-
| After-effects || 2-24 hours
|}

== Effects ==
=== Positive ===
* Relaxation
* Analgesic (Painkiller)

=== Neutral ===
* Giggling
* Loss of inhibition

=== Negative ===
* Low carcinogenic risk when '''smoked''' (due to combustion of other materials)

== Harm Reduction ==

* The responsible cannabis user does not operate a motor vehicle or other dangerous machinery impaired by cannabis. Although cannabis is said by most experts to be safer than alcohol and many prescription drugs with motorists, public safety demands that impaired drivers be taken off the road and that objective measures of impairment be developed and used, rather than chemical testing.

* Cannabis consumption is for adults only. Many things and activities are suitable for young people, but others absolutely are not. Children do not drive cars, enter into contracts or marry, and they must not use drugs.

* The responsible cannabis user will carefully consider his/her setting and regulate use accordingly. The responsible cannabis consumer will be vigilant as to conditions -- time, place, mood, etc. -- and does not hesitate to say "no" when those conditions are not conducive to a safe, pleasant and/or productive experience.

* The responsible cannabis user does not violate the rights of others, observes accepted standards of courtesy and public propriety, and respects the preferences of those who wish to avoid cannabis entirely. Regardless of the legal status of cannabis, responsible users will adhere to emerging tobacco smoking protocols in public and private places.

* Recommended time (pauses) between using the substance

* Use of cannabis, to the extent that it impairs health, personal development or achievement, is abuse and should be resisted by responsible cannabis users. Abuse means harm. Some cannabis use is harmful; most is not. That which is harmful should be discouraged; that which is not need not be.

=== Research Chemicals ===

Cannabinoid research chemicals receive relatively frequent media coverage in cases of overdoses. This is generally because cannabinoids are often sold in blends without dosing information or sometimes even the active component - if you are looking to take cannabinoids in an informed manner, blends should be avoided unless accurate information is provided alongside it. When cannabinoids are bought in pure form, they are often active in the microgram range, and can be quite difficult to measure.

Overdoses of cannabinoids are generally known to cause hallucinatory experiences, which in turn often cause panic attacks. Larger overdoses may also cause heart issues. Repetitive heavy dosing of certain cannabinoids are suspected to cause organ damage.

See [[Research Chemicals]] for more information.

== Legal status ==

Both Cannabis and Tetrahydrocannabinols, the active chemicals contained in Cannabis plants, are Schedule I in the United States. This means they are federally illegal to cultivate, buy, possess, or distribute (sell, trade or give) in all forms (cannabis plants, extracts, hash, hash oil, thc, etc) except synthetic THC (Marinol) which is Schedule III.

Practically, simple possession of small amounts is almost never prosecuted federally.

The federal scheduling of Cannabis was disputed in 1988 by Judge Francis Young, an administrative law judge for the DEA, who recommended that marijuana be reclassified as schedule II on the grounds that if a respectable minority of doctors endorse it, then it has a "currently accepted medical use".

Cannabis has many reported medical uses and its active component is an approved drug in the US. The US government has, in the last 20 years, been forced to provide medical cannabis to 8 patients in the form of cannabis cigarettes although as a top level, federal policy has opposed any change in the status of cannabis to move it to a lower schedule. Over a dozen states now allow some provision for the medical use of cannabis, although only around 8 have effective protection (AK, CA, CO, HI, ME, NV, OR, WA).

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Depressant]]
[[Category:Drugs]]

Cannabis

2016-09-05T22:10:49Z

Dread: Gave the 'History' section the more accurate title of 'Etymology' (intend to add an actual history section soon), made more succinct and readable, added inline citation

[[File:Nug.jpg|thumb|400px|Cannabis bud, commonly referred to as a 'nug.']]

Cannabis, commonly known in some regions as Marijuana, and by various colloquial names, refers to a genus of plants indigenous to Central and South Asia.<ref>Mahmoud A. ElSohly, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fxoJPVNKYUgC&pg=PA8&redir_esc=y&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false "Marijuana and the Cannabinoids"], ''Springer Science & Business Media'', 15 Nov 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2016.</ref> The genus is scientifically subdivided into three species, Ruderalis, Indica and Sativa<ref>Karl Hillig, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226862901_Genetic_Evidence_for_Speciation_in_Cannabis_Cannabaceae "Genetic Evidence for Speciation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae)"], ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'', January 2005. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>, however there is little scientific consensus on taxonomy and often little correlation between scientific classification and commercial descriptions of strains as 'Sativa' or 'Indica'. Commercial psychoactive strains of Cannabis are typically hybrids of Sativa, Indica and/or Ruderalis.<ref>[https://www.cannabisreports.com/news/2015/07/08/beyond-indica-and-sativa-a-greater-understanding-of-cannabis-genetics/ "Beyond Indica and Sativa: A Greater Understanding of Cannabis Genetics"], ''The Cannabis Reporter'', 8th July 2015. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Whilst the Cannabis plant has various uses in production of fibres, it is most well known today for its psychoactive effects. Various desirable sensations are reported in individuals who have consumed cannabis, such as euphoria, relaxation, and sleepiness. Adverse effects include decreased short term memory, dryness of the oral cavity ("Cotton-mouth"), impaired motor skills and reddening of the eyes. Occasionally, cannabis can produce anxiety, panic, or paranoia. Rarely, cannabis has been implicated in the development of acute psychosis.<ref>MedlinePlus, [https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000952.htm "Marijuana intoxication"], ''U.S. National Library of Medicine''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref> [http://drugs.tripsit.me/cannabis A full range of effects can be found on the Tripsit Factsheets.]

The primary psychoactive agent in cannabis is believed to be tetrahydrocannabinol, however the drug contains at least 65 other cannabinoids, and 485 compounds have been identified thus far in cannabis. The extent to which these compounds produce psychoactive effects is a matter of ongoing research.<ref>Ethan B Russo, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qH-2Lj9x7L4C&pg=PP28&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false "Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential"], ''Routledge'', 24 April 2002. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Cannabis can be consumed in a variety of ways, such as smoking, vaporisation, consumption as part of foods and in extracts. <ref>Baggio et al., [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24119417 "Routes of administration of cannabis used for nonmedical purposes and associations with patterns of drug use.
"], ''J Adolesc Health'', February 2014. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Cannabis has been used throughout history as both a recreational drug, medicine and spiritual aid. 128 to 232 million people used cannabis (2.7% to 4.9% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65) in 2013, making it the most commonly used illicit drug on Earth.<ref>UNODC, [http://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr2015/WDR15_Drug_use_health_consequences.pdf "STATUS AND TREND ANALYSIS OF ILLICT (sic) DRUG MARKETS "], ''UNODC'', 2013. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Despite this high usage, Cannabis remains prohibited to various extents throughout most jurisdictions.<ref>Erowid, [https://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_law.shtml "Cannabis Legal Status"], ''Erowid''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref><ref>UNODC, [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2010.html "World Drug Report 2010"], ''UNODC'', 2010. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref> The extent to which laws prohibiting cannabis usage are enforced varies worldwide.

In recent times there have been developments in the legal use of cannabis as a medication for various ailments. Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, and 23 U.S. states have made medicinal cannabis usage legal. <ref> [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_and_medical_status_of_cannabis "Legal and Medical Status of Cannabis"], ''Wikipedia''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

== Etymology==
The word 'Cannabis' appears to derive from the Greek 'kannabis', a loanword from Scythia or Thrace, where it was used to refer to the hemp plant. It has been in use in English to refer to 'common hemp', the variant of the plant used to create fibres, from 1798, and in reference to the psychoactive usage of the plant from 1848. It may have provided the origin for the words 'hemp' and 'canvas'.<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cannabis "cannabis (n.)"], ''Etymonline''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

=== Taxonomy ===
The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the Nettle (Urticaceae) or Mulberry (Moraceae) family, but is now considered along with hops (Humulus sp.) to belong to the Hemp family (Cannabaceae). Recent phylogenetic studies based on cpDNA restriction site analysis and gene sequencing strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae arose from within the Celtidaceae clade, and that the two families should be merged to form a single monophyletic group.

Various types of Cannabis have been described, and classified as species, subspecies, or varieties:

* Plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types.
* Plants cultivated for drug production, described as high-intoxicant or drug types.
* Escaped or wild forms of either of the above types.

Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, which produce the "high" one experiences from smoking marijuana. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early 1970s, Cannabis plants have been categorized by their chemical phenotype or "chemotype," based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD. Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant. Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F1) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce similar amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.

Top of Cannabis plant in vegetative growth stage.

Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species. One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups." Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species. Physiological barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within Cannabis, and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile. However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation. It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.

Cannabis has long been used for fibre (hemp), for medicinal purposes, and as a recreational drug. Industrial hemp products are made from Cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber and minimal levels of THC (Δ9- tetrahydrocannabinol), a psychoactive molecule that produces the "high" associated with marijuana. The psychoactive product consists of dried flowers and leaves of plants selected to produce high levels of THC. Various extracts including hashish and hash oil are also produced from the plant.

==== Early classifications ====
The Cannabis genus was first classified using the "modern" system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species. He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named Cannabis sativa L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica Lam. Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described C. indica as having poorer fiber quality than C. sativa, but greater utility as an inebriant. Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin. However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias, and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.

==== 20th Century ====
In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C. sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch. and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. as alternative names. In 1929, renowned plant explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var. kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav. In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they recognized two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. culta Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and C. sativa L. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. sativa subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies culta. However, they did not divide C. indica into subspecies or varieties. This excessive splitting of C. sativa proved too unwieldy, and never gained many adherents.

In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the United States and Canada specifically named products of C. sativa as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. sativa, and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity. The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.

In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. sativa, and C. sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq. The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a result of human selection; C. sativa subsp. sativa was presumably selected for traits that enhance fiber or seed production, whereas C. sativa subsp. indica was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant Cannabis, and C. sativa subsp. indica var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters.

Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the 1970s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis. For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis is monotypic, with only a single species. According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug strains from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.

==== Continuing research ====
Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late twentieth century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis, primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes. Dutch Cannabis researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an "extremely high" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars. They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the Cannabis gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus comprises a single species, although theirs was not a systematic study per se.

Karl W. Hillig, a graduate student in the laboratory of long-time Cannabis researcher Paul G. Mahlberg at Indiana University, conducted a systematic investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations. In 2004, Hillig and Mahlberg published a chemotaxomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in their Cannabis germplasm collection. They used gas chromatography to determine cannabinoid content and to infer allele frequencies of the gene that controls CBD and THC production within the studied populations, and concluded that the patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, but not C. ruderalis. The authors assigned fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. indica. In 2005, Hillig published a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions (this paper was the first in the series, but was delayed in publication), and proposed a three-species classification, recognizing C. sativa, C. indica, and (tentatively) C. ruderalis. In his doctoral dissertation published the same year, Hillig stated that principal components analysis of phenotypic (morphological) traits failed to differentiate the putative species, but that canonical variates analysis resulted in a high degree of discrimination of the putative species and infraspecific taxa. Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of certain sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa. Hillig concluded that the patterns of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. He also concluded there is little support to treat C. ruderalis as a separate species from C. sativa at this time, but more research on wild and weedy populations is needed because they were underrepresented in their collection.

In September 2005, New Scientist reported that researchers at the Canberra Institute of Technology had identified a new type of Cannabis based on analysis of mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA. The New Scientist story, which was picked up by many news agencies and web sites, indicated that the research was to be published in the journal Forensic Science International. When the article was finally published, there was no mention of "Rasta."

== Usage ==
[[File:Groundc.jpg|thumb|400px|Cannabis is often ground up finely before use.]]
The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. "Sativa" is the term used to describe the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. "Indica" is used to designate shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. "Ruderalis" is the term used to describe the short plants that grow wild in Europe and central Asia.

Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as "pure indica," "mostly indica," "indica/sativa," "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa."

=== Reproduction ===
Cannabis is predominantly dioecious, although many monoecious varieties have been described. Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread. Many populations have been described as sexually labile.
Cannabis flower with visible trichomes.
Male Cannabis pollen sacs.

As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar. Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where typically the female flowers are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops. However, the so-called "sativa" drug strains often produce monoecious individuals, probably as a result of inbreeding.
Mechanisms of sex determination

Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants. Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis.

Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an XY sex-determination system is present. At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925. Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation, and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.

Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants. Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.

Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage type".
A male hemp plant.
Dense raceme of carpellate flowers typical of drug-type varieties of Cannabis.

The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see History of Cytogenetics). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious "Kentucky" hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious "Kentucky" hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious "Kentucky" hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX. According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996. Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically.

More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors have used RAPD to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and AFLP. Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating,

"It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination."

Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species. Many researchers have suggested that sex in Cannabis is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors. Ainsworth reviews that treatment with auxin and ethylene have feminizing effects, and that treatment with cytokinins and gibberellins have masculinizing effects. It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment. A PCR-based method for the detection of female-associated DNA polymorphisms by genotyping has been developed.
Industrial and personal uses

=== Hemp ===

Hemp is the natural, durable soft fiber from the stalk of Cannabis sativa plants that grow upwards of 20 feet tall. Cannabis plants used for hemp production are not valued for recreational uses as the plants that are cultivated for hemp produce minimal levels of THC, analogous to attempting to get drunk from low-alcohol beer. Cannabis plants intended for any drug cultivation cannot be hidden in a hemp field either, as the size and height of each are significantly different.

Hemp producers sell hemp seeds as a health food, as they are rich in heart-healthy, essential fatty acids, amino acids (both essential and nonessential), vitamins and minerals. Hemp "milk" is a milk substitute also made from hemp seeds that is both dairy and gluten-free.

Hemp is fairly easy to grow and matures very fast compared to many crops, most notably trees used for paper. Compared to cotton for clothing, hemp cloth is known to be of superior strength and longer-lasting. The fibers may also be used to form cordage for industrial-strength ropes. Hemp plants also require little pesticides and herbicides due to its height, density and foliage. This also makes the hemp plant very environmentally-friendly.

Hemp can be utilized for 25,000 very durable textile products, ranging from paper and clothing to biofuels (from the oils found in the seeds), medicines and construction material. Hemp has been used by many civilizations, from China to Europe (and later North America) for the last 12,000 years of history.
Recreational use
Comparison of physical harm and dependence regarding various drugs (the British medical journal The Lancet).
Main article: Cannabis (drug)
See also: Tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabidiol, and Effects of cannabis

Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, only behind alcohol, caffeine and tobacco. In the United States alone, it is believed that over 100 million Americans have tried Cannabis, with 25 million Americans using it within the past year.

The psychoactive effects of Cannabis are known to have a biphasic nature. Primary psychoactive effects include a state of relaxation, and to a lesser degree, euphoria from its main psychoactive compound, tetrahydrocannabinol. Secondary psychoactive effects, such as a facility for philosophical thinking; introspection and metacognition have been reported, amongst cases of anxiety and paranoia. Finally, the tertiary psychoactive effects of the drug cannabis, can include an increase in heart rate and hunger, believed to be caused by 11-Hydroxy-THC, a psychoactive metabolite of THC produced in the liver.

Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a smoking pipe, bong or vaporizer. However, if a large amount is taken orally the effects may last much longer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug.

Various forms of the drug cannabis exist, including extracts such as hashish and hash oil which, due to appearance, are more susceptible to adulterants when left unregulated.

The plant Cannabis sativa is known to cause more of a "high" by stimulating hunger and by producing a rather more comedic, or energetic feeling. Conversely, the Cannabis indica plant is known to cause more of a "stoned" type of feeling, possibly due to a higher CBD to THC ratio.

Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no psychotropic effects by itself] (although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to caffeine),[citation needed] attenuates, or reduces the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone.

According to the UK medical journal The Lancet, Cannabis has a lower rate of dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. However, everyday use of Cannabis can in some cases, be correlated with some psychological withdrawal symptoms such as irritability, and insomnia and evidence could suggest that if a user experiences stress, the likeliness of getting a panic attack increases due to an increase of THC metabolites. However, any Cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never life-threatening.

=== Medical use ===
A synthetic form of the main psychoactive cannabinoid in Cannabis, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is used as a treatment for a wide range of medical conditions.

In the United States, although the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does acknowledge that "there has been considerable interest in its use for the treatment of a number of conditions, including glaucoma, AIDS wasting, neuropathic pain, treatment of spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis, and chemotherapy-induced nausea," the agency has not approved "medical marijuana". There are currently 2 oral forms of cannabis (cannabinoids) available by prescription in the United States for nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy: dronabinol (Marinol) and nabilone (Cesamet). Dronabinol is also approved for the treatment of anorexia associated with AIDS. The FDA does facilitate scientific investigations into the medical uses of cannabinoids.

In a collection of writings on medical marijuana by 45 researchers, a literature review on the medicinal uses of Cannabis and cannabinoids concluded that established uses include easing of nausea and vomiting, anorexia, and weight loss; "well-confirmed effect" was found in the treatment of spasticity, painful conditions (i.e. neurogenic pain), movement disorders, asthma, and glaucoma. Reported but "less-confirmed" effects included treatment of allergies, inflammation, infection, epilepsy, depression, bipolar disorders, anxiety disorder, dependency and withdrawal. Basic level research was being carried out at the time on autoimmune disease, cancer, neuroprotection, fever, disorders of blood pressure.

Clinical trials conducted by the American Marijuana Policy Project, have shown the efficacy of cannabis as a treatment for cancer and AIDS patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to chemotherapy and other aggressive treatments. A synthetic version of the cannabinoid THC named dronabinol has been shown to relieve symptoms of anorexia and reduce agitation in elderly Alzheimer's patients. Dronabinol has been approved for use with anorexia in patients with HIV/AIDS and chemotherapy-related nausea. This drug, while demonstrating the effectiveness of Cannabis at combating several disorders, is more expensive and less available than whole cannabis and has not been shown to be effective or safe.

Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some studies have shown a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke cannabis, but the effects are generally short-lived. There exists some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor. Although Cannabis may not be the best therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB receptors can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.

Medical cannabis is also used for analgesia, or pain relief. It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder. Case reports have found that Cannabis can relieve tics in people with obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive chemical found in Cannabis, reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more. Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found. A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in Cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease. THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.

Another potential use for medical cannabis is movement disorders. Cannabis is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasms associated with multiple sclerosis; this has been acknowledged by the Institute of Medicine, but it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies suggests that there is a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures. A synthetic version of the major active compound in Cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol) in many countries. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

=== Religious use ===
Cannabis is first referred to in Hindu Vedas between 2000 and 1400 BCE, in the Atharvaveda. By the 10 century CE, it was being referred to in India as "food of the gods". Cannabis use eventually became a ritual part of the Hindu festival of Holi. In Buddhism, cannabis has been used in meditation and regarded as a holy plant since 500 BCE. Shamanic use of Cannabis in China has been dated to at least 1000 BCE. In ancient Germanic culture, Cannabis was associated with the Norse love goddess, Freya. An anointing oil mentioned in Exodus is, by some translators, said to contain Cannabis. Sufis have used Cannabis in a spiritual context since the thirteenth century CE.

In modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced Cannabis as a sacrament. Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider Cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ, even though the movement was founded in the United States in 1975 and has no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church. Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that Cannabis is the Tree of Life. Other organized religions founded in the 20th century that treat Cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry, the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism, the Cannabis Assembly and the Church of Cognizance.

== Aspects of Cannabis production and use ==
Cannabis field seized by authorities.

* Cannabis cultivation discusses aspects of cultivation for medicinal and recreational drug purposes.
* Cannabis (drug) discusses its use as a recreational drug.
* Health issues and the effects of cannabis discusses the pharmacology, physical, and mental effects of Cannabis when used as drug.
* Hemp discusses its uses as a source of housing, oil, food, fibers, and industrial materials.
* Legality of cannabis focuses on the law and enforcement aspects of growing, transporting, selling and using Cannabis as a drug.
* Cannabis reclassification in the United Kingdom.
* Cannabis rescheduling in the United States.
* Drug policy of the Netherlands.
* Medical Cannabis discusses its use as a medication.
* Spiritual use of cannabis discusses sacramental and religious use.

== Dosage ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oral
|-
| Appetite Stimulation || 2.5mg
|-
| Appetite Stimulation (Chemotherapy) || 5mg (3x daily)
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Smoked
|-
| Light || 1/30g
|-
| Common (typical) || 2/30g
|-
| Strong || 3/30g
|}

== Duration ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oral
|-
| Onset || 30-120 minutes
|-
| Total || 4-10 hours
|-
| After-effects || 6-24 hours
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Smoked
|-
| Onset || 0-10 minutes
|-
| Total || 1-4 hours
|-
| After-effects || 2-24 hours
|}

== Effects ==
=== Positive ===
* Relaxation
* Analgesic (Painkiller)

=== Neutral ===
* Giggling
* Loss of inhibition

=== Negative ===
* Low carcinogenic risk when '''smoked''' (due to combustion of other materials)

== Harm Reduction ==

* The responsible cannabis user does not operate a motor vehicle or other dangerous machinery impaired by cannabis. Although cannabis is said by most experts to be safer than alcohol and many prescription drugs with motorists, public safety demands that impaired drivers be taken off the road and that objective measures of impairment be developed and used, rather than chemical testing.

* Cannabis consumption is for adults only. Many things and activities are suitable for young people, but others absolutely are not. Children do not drive cars, enter into contracts or marry, and they must not use drugs.

* The responsible cannabis user will carefully consider his/her setting and regulate use accordingly. The responsible cannabis consumer will be vigilant as to conditions -- time, place, mood, etc. -- and does not hesitate to say "no" when those conditions are not conducive to a safe, pleasant and/or productive experience.

* The responsible cannabis user does not violate the rights of others, observes accepted standards of courtesy and public propriety, and respects the preferences of those who wish to avoid cannabis entirely. Regardless of the legal status of cannabis, responsible users will adhere to emerging tobacco smoking protocols in public and private places.

* Recommended time (pauses) between using the substance

* Use of cannabis, to the extent that it impairs health, personal development or achievement, is abuse and should be resisted by responsible cannabis users. Abuse means harm. Some cannabis use is harmful; most is not. That which is harmful should be discouraged; that which is not need not be.

=== Research Chemicals ===

Cannibanoid research chemicals receive relatively frequent media coverage in cases of overdoses. This is generally because cannibanoids are often sold in blends without dosing information or sometimes even the active component - if you are looking to take cannibanoids in an informed manner, blends should be avoided unless accurate information is provided alongside it. When cannibanoids are bought in pure form, they are often active in the microgram range, and can be quite difficult to measure.

Overdoses of cannibanoids are generally known to cause hallucinatory experiences, which in turn often cause panic attacks. Larger overdoses may also cause heart issues. Repetitive heavy dosing of certain cannibanoids are suspected to cause organ damage.

See [[Research Chemicals]] for more information.

== Legal status ==

Both Cannabis and Tetrahydrocannabinols, the active chemicals contained in Cannabis plants, are Schedule I in the United States. This means they are federally illegal to cultivate, buy, possess, or distribute (sell, trade or give) in all forms (cannabis plants, extracts, hash, hash oil, thc, etc) except synthetic THC (Marinol) which is Schedule III.

Practically, simple possession of small amounts is almost never prosecuted federally.

The federal scheduling of Cannabis was disputed in 1988 by Judge Francis Young, an administrative law judge for the DEA, who recommended that marijuana be reclassified as schedule II on the grounds that if a respectable minority of doctors endorse it, then it has a "currently accepted medical use".

Cannabis has many reported medical uses and its active component is an approved drug in the US. The US government has, in the last 20 years, been forced to provide medical cannabis to 8 patients in the form of cannabis cigarettes although as a top level, federal policy has opposed any change in the status of cannabis to move it to a lower schedule. Over a dozen states now allow some provision for the medical use of cannabis, although only around 8 have effective protection (AK, CA, CO, HI, ME, NV, OR, WA).

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Depressant]]
[[Category:Drugs]]

Cannabis

2016-09-05T22:00:58Z

Dread: Rewrote the entire summary as it contained too much technical information better suited to later sections, removed a lot of wikipedia copypasta, added inline citations etcetera

[[File:Nug.jpg|thumb|400px|Cannabis bud, commonly referred to as a 'nug.']]

Cannabis, commonly known in some regions as Marijuana, and by various colloquial names, refers to a genus of plants indigenous to Central and South Asia.<ref>Mahmoud A. ElSohly, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fxoJPVNKYUgC&pg=PA8&redir_esc=y&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false "Marijuana and the Cannabinoids"], ''Springer Science & Business Media'', 15 Nov 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2016.</ref> The genus is scientifically subdivided into three species, Ruderalis, Indica and Sativa<ref>Karl Hillig, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226862901_Genetic_Evidence_for_Speciation_in_Cannabis_Cannabaceae "Genetic Evidence for Speciation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae)"], ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'', January 2005. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>, however there is little scientific consensus on taxonomy and often little correlation between scientific classification and commercial descriptions of strains as 'Sativa' or 'Indica'. Commercial psychoactive strains of Cannabis are typically hybrids of Sativa, Indica and/or Ruderalis.<ref>[https://www.cannabisreports.com/news/2015/07/08/beyond-indica-and-sativa-a-greater-understanding-of-cannabis-genetics/ "Beyond Indica and Sativa: A Greater Understanding of Cannabis Genetics"], ''The Cannabis Reporter'', 8th July 2015. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Whilst the Cannabis plant has various uses in production of fibres, it is most well known today for its psychoactive effects. Various desirable sensations are reported in individuals who have consumed cannabis, such as euphoria, relaxation, and sleepiness. Adverse effects include decreased short term memory, dryness of the oral cavity ("Cotton-mouth"), impaired motor skills and reddening of the eyes. Occasionally, cannabis can produce anxiety, panic, or paranoia. Rarely, cannabis has been implicated in the development of acute psychosis.<ref>MedlinePlus, [https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000952.htm "Marijuana intoxication"], ''U.S. National Library of Medicine''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref> [http://drugs.tripsit.me/cannabis A full range of effects can be found on the Tripsit Factsheets.]

The primary psychoactive agent in cannabis is believed to be tetrahydrocannabinol, however the drug contains at least 65 other cannabinoids, and 485 compounds have been identified thus far in cannabis. The extent to which these compounds produce psychoactive effects is a matter of ongoing research.<ref>Ethan B Russo, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qH-2Lj9x7L4C&pg=PP28&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false "Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential"], ''Routledge'', 24 April 2002. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Cannabis can be consumed in a variety of ways, such as smoking, vaporisation, consumption as part of foods and in extracts. <ref>Baggio et al., [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24119417 "Routes of administration of cannabis used for nonmedical purposes and associations with patterns of drug use.
"], ''J Adolesc Health'', February 2014. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Cannabis has been used throughout history as both a recreational drug, medicine and spiritual aid. 128 to 232 million people used cannabis (2.7% to 4.9% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65) in 2013, making it the most commonly used illicit drug on Earth.<ref>UNODC, [http://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr2015/WDR15_Drug_use_health_consequences.pdf "STATUS AND TREND ANALYSIS OF ILLICT (sic) DRUG MARKETS "], ''UNODC'', 2013. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

Despite this high usage, Cannabis remains prohibited to various extents throughout most jurisdictions.<ref>Erowid, [https://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_law.shtml "Cannabis Legal Status"], ''Erowid''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref><ref>UNODC, [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2010.html "World Drug Report 2010"], ''UNODC'', 2010. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref> The extent to which laws prohibiting cannabis usage are enforced varies worldwide.

In recent times there have been developments in the legal use of cannabis as a medication for various ailments. Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, and 23 U.S. states have made medicinal cannabis usage legal. <ref> [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_and_medical_status_of_cannabis "Legal and Medical Status of Cannabis"], ''Wikipedia''. Retrieved 5th September 2016.</ref>

== History ==
The word cannabis is from Greek κάνναβις (kánnabis) (see Latin cannabis), which was originally Scythian or Thracian. It is related to the Persian kanab, the English canvas and possibly even to the English hemp (Old English hænep). In Hebrew, the word is קַנַּבּוֹס [qanːa'boːs]. Old Akkadian qunnabtu, Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian qunnabu were used to refer to the plant meaning "a way to produce smoke."

=== Taxonomy ===
The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the Nettle (Urticaceae) or Mulberry (Moraceae) family, but is now considered along with hops (Humulus sp.) to belong to the Hemp family (Cannabaceae). Recent phylogenetic studies based on cpDNA restriction site analysis and gene sequencing strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae arose from within the Celtidaceae clade, and that the two families should be merged to form a single monophyletic group.

Various types of Cannabis have been described, and classified as species, subspecies, or varieties:

* Plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types.
* Plants cultivated for drug production, described as high-intoxicant or drug types.
* Escaped or wild forms of either of the above types.

Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, which produce the "high" one experiences from smoking marijuana. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early 1970s, Cannabis plants have been categorized by their chemical phenotype or "chemotype," based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD. Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant. Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F1) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce similar amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.

Top of Cannabis plant in vegetative growth stage.

Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species. One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups." Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species. Physiological barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within Cannabis, and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile. However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation. It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.

Cannabis has long been used for fibre (hemp), for medicinal purposes, and as a recreational drug. Industrial hemp products are made from Cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber and minimal levels of THC (Δ9- tetrahydrocannabinol), a psychoactive molecule that produces the "high" associated with marijuana. The psychoactive product consists of dried flowers and leaves of plants selected to produce high levels of THC. Various extracts including hashish and hash oil are also produced from the plant.

==== Early classifications ====
The Cannabis genus was first classified using the "modern" system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species. He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named Cannabis sativa L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica Lam. Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described C. indica as having poorer fiber quality than C. sativa, but greater utility as an inebriant. Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin. However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias, and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.

==== 20th Century ====
In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C. sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch. and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. as alternative names. In 1929, renowned plant explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var. kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav. In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they recognized two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. culta Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and C. sativa L. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. sativa subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies culta. However, they did not divide C. indica into subspecies or varieties. This excessive splitting of C. sativa proved too unwieldy, and never gained many adherents.

In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the United States and Canada specifically named products of C. sativa as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. sativa, and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity. The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.

In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. sativa, and C. sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq. The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a result of human selection; C. sativa subsp. sativa was presumably selected for traits that enhance fiber or seed production, whereas C. sativa subsp. indica was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant Cannabis, and C. sativa subsp. indica var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters.

Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the 1970s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis. For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis is monotypic, with only a single species. According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug strains from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.

==== Continuing research ====
Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late twentieth century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis, primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes. Dutch Cannabis researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an "extremely high" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars. They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the Cannabis gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus comprises a single species, although theirs was not a systematic study per se.

Karl W. Hillig, a graduate student in the laboratory of long-time Cannabis researcher Paul G. Mahlberg at Indiana University, conducted a systematic investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations. In 2004, Hillig and Mahlberg published a chemotaxomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in their Cannabis germplasm collection. They used gas chromatography to determine cannabinoid content and to infer allele frequencies of the gene that controls CBD and THC production within the studied populations, and concluded that the patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, but not C. ruderalis. The authors assigned fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. indica. In 2005, Hillig published a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions (this paper was the first in the series, but was delayed in publication), and proposed a three-species classification, recognizing C. sativa, C. indica, and (tentatively) C. ruderalis. In his doctoral dissertation published the same year, Hillig stated that principal components analysis of phenotypic (morphological) traits failed to differentiate the putative species, but that canonical variates analysis resulted in a high degree of discrimination of the putative species and infraspecific taxa. Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of certain sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa. Hillig concluded that the patterns of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. He also concluded there is little support to treat C. ruderalis as a separate species from C. sativa at this time, but more research on wild and weedy populations is needed because they were underrepresented in their collection.

In September 2005, New Scientist reported that researchers at the Canberra Institute of Technology had identified a new type of Cannabis based on analysis of mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA. The New Scientist story, which was picked up by many news agencies and web sites, indicated that the research was to be published in the journal Forensic Science International. When the article was finally published, there was no mention of "Rasta."

== Usage ==
[[File:Groundc.jpg|thumb|400px|Cannabis is often ground up finely before use.]]
The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. "Sativa" is the term used to describe the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. "Indica" is used to designate shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. "Ruderalis" is the term used to describe the short plants that grow wild in Europe and central Asia.

Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as "pure indica," "mostly indica," "indica/sativa," "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa."

=== Reproduction ===
Cannabis is predominantly dioecious, although many monoecious varieties have been described. Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread. Many populations have been described as sexually labile.
Cannabis flower with visible trichomes.
Male Cannabis pollen sacs.

As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar. Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where typically the female flowers are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops. However, the so-called "sativa" drug strains often produce monoecious individuals, probably as a result of inbreeding.
Mechanisms of sex determination

Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants. Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis.

Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an XY sex-determination system is present. At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925. Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation, and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.

Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants. Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.

Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage type".
A male hemp plant.
Dense raceme of carpellate flowers typical of drug-type varieties of Cannabis.

The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see History of Cytogenetics). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious "Kentucky" hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious "Kentucky" hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious "Kentucky" hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX. According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996. Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically.

More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors have used RAPD to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and AFLP. Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating,

"It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination."

Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species. Many researchers have suggested that sex in Cannabis is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors. Ainsworth reviews that treatment with auxin and ethylene have feminizing effects, and that treatment with cytokinins and gibberellins have masculinizing effects. It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment. A PCR-based method for the detection of female-associated DNA polymorphisms by genotyping has been developed.
Industrial and personal uses

=== Hemp ===

Hemp is the natural, durable soft fiber from the stalk of Cannabis sativa plants that grow upwards of 20 feet tall. Cannabis plants used for hemp production are not valued for recreational uses as the plants that are cultivated for hemp produce minimal levels of THC, analogous to attempting to get drunk from low-alcohol beer. Cannabis plants intended for any drug cultivation cannot be hidden in a hemp field either, as the size and height of each are significantly different.

Hemp producers sell hemp seeds as a health food, as they are rich in heart-healthy, essential fatty acids, amino acids (both essential and nonessential), vitamins and minerals. Hemp "milk" is a milk substitute also made from hemp seeds that is both dairy and gluten-free.

Hemp is fairly easy to grow and matures very fast compared to many crops, most notably trees used for paper. Compared to cotton for clothing, hemp cloth is known to be of superior strength and longer-lasting. The fibers may also be used to form cordage for industrial-strength ropes. Hemp plants also require little pesticides and herbicides due to its height, density and foliage. This also makes the hemp plant very environmentally-friendly.

Hemp can be utilized for 25,000 very durable textile products, ranging from paper and clothing to biofuels (from the oils found in the seeds), medicines and construction material. Hemp has been used by many civilizations, from China to Europe (and later North America) for the last 12,000 years of history.
Recreational use
Comparison of physical harm and dependence regarding various drugs (the British medical journal The Lancet).
Main article: Cannabis (drug)
See also: Tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabidiol, and Effects of cannabis

Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, only behind alcohol, caffeine and tobacco. In the United States alone, it is believed that over 100 million Americans have tried Cannabis, with 25 million Americans using it within the past year.

The psychoactive effects of Cannabis are known to have a biphasic nature. Primary psychoactive effects include a state of relaxation, and to a lesser degree, euphoria from its main psychoactive compound, tetrahydrocannabinol. Secondary psychoactive effects, such as a facility for philosophical thinking; introspection and metacognition have been reported, amongst cases of anxiety and paranoia. Finally, the tertiary psychoactive effects of the drug cannabis, can include an increase in heart rate and hunger, believed to be caused by 11-Hydroxy-THC, a psychoactive metabolite of THC produced in the liver.

Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a smoking pipe, bong or vaporizer. However, if a large amount is taken orally the effects may last much longer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug.

Various forms of the drug cannabis exist, including extracts such as hashish and hash oil which, due to appearance, are more susceptible to adulterants when left unregulated.

The plant Cannabis sativa is known to cause more of a "high" by stimulating hunger and by producing a rather more comedic, or energetic feeling. Conversely, the Cannabis indica plant is known to cause more of a "stoned" type of feeling, possibly due to a higher CBD to THC ratio.

Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no psychotropic effects by itself] (although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to caffeine),[citation needed] attenuates, or reduces the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone.

According to the UK medical journal The Lancet, Cannabis has a lower rate of dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. However, everyday use of Cannabis can in some cases, be correlated with some psychological withdrawal symptoms such as irritability, and insomnia and evidence could suggest that if a user experiences stress, the likeliness of getting a panic attack increases due to an increase of THC metabolites. However, any Cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never life-threatening.

=== Medical use ===
A synthetic form of the main psychoactive cannabinoid in Cannabis, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is used as a treatment for a wide range of medical conditions.

In the United States, although the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does acknowledge that "there has been considerable interest in its use for the treatment of a number of conditions, including glaucoma, AIDS wasting, neuropathic pain, treatment of spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis, and chemotherapy-induced nausea," the agency has not approved "medical marijuana". There are currently 2 oral forms of cannabis (cannabinoids) available by prescription in the United States for nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy: dronabinol (Marinol) and nabilone (Cesamet). Dronabinol is also approved for the treatment of anorexia associated with AIDS. The FDA does facilitate scientific investigations into the medical uses of cannabinoids.

In a collection of writings on medical marijuana by 45 researchers, a literature review on the medicinal uses of Cannabis and cannabinoids concluded that established uses include easing of nausea and vomiting, anorexia, and weight loss; "well-confirmed effect" was found in the treatment of spasticity, painful conditions (i.e. neurogenic pain), movement disorders, asthma, and glaucoma. Reported but "less-confirmed" effects included treatment of allergies, inflammation, infection, epilepsy, depression, bipolar disorders, anxiety disorder, dependency and withdrawal. Basic level research was being carried out at the time on autoimmune disease, cancer, neuroprotection, fever, disorders of blood pressure.

Clinical trials conducted by the American Marijuana Policy Project, have shown the efficacy of cannabis as a treatment for cancer and AIDS patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to chemotherapy and other aggressive treatments. A synthetic version of the cannabinoid THC named dronabinol has been shown to relieve symptoms of anorexia and reduce agitation in elderly Alzheimer's patients. Dronabinol has been approved for use with anorexia in patients with HIV/AIDS and chemotherapy-related nausea. This drug, while demonstrating the effectiveness of Cannabis at combating several disorders, is more expensive and less available than whole cannabis and has not been shown to be effective or safe.

Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some studies have shown a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke cannabis, but the effects are generally short-lived. There exists some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor. Although Cannabis may not be the best therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB receptors can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.

Medical cannabis is also used for analgesia, or pain relief. It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder. Case reports have found that Cannabis can relieve tics in people with obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive chemical found in Cannabis, reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more. Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found. A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in Cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease. THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.

Another potential use for medical cannabis is movement disorders. Cannabis is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasms associated with multiple sclerosis; this has been acknowledged by the Institute of Medicine, but it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies suggests that there is a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures. A synthetic version of the major active compound in Cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol) in many countries. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

=== Religious use ===
Cannabis is first referred to in Hindu Vedas between 2000 and 1400 BCE, in the Atharvaveda. By the 10 century CE, it was being referred to in India as "food of the gods". Cannabis use eventually became a ritual part of the Hindu festival of Holi. In Buddhism, cannabis has been used in meditation and regarded as a holy plant since 500 BCE. Shamanic use of Cannabis in China has been dated to at least 1000 BCE. In ancient Germanic culture, Cannabis was associated with the Norse love goddess, Freya. An anointing oil mentioned in Exodus is, by some translators, said to contain Cannabis. Sufis have used Cannabis in a spiritual context since the thirteenth century CE.

In modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced Cannabis as a sacrament. Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider Cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ, even though the movement was founded in the United States in 1975 and has no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church. Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that Cannabis is the Tree of Life. Other organized religions founded in the 20th century that treat Cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry, the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism, the Cannabis Assembly and the Church of Cognizance.

== Aspects of Cannabis production and use ==
Cannabis field seized by authorities.

* Cannabis cultivation discusses aspects of cultivation for medicinal and recreational drug purposes.
* Cannabis (drug) discusses its use as a recreational drug.
* Health issues and the effects of cannabis discusses the pharmacology, physical, and mental effects of Cannabis when used as drug.
* Hemp discusses its uses as a source of housing, oil, food, fibers, and industrial materials.
* Legality of cannabis focuses on the law and enforcement aspects of growing, transporting, selling and using Cannabis as a drug.
* Cannabis reclassification in the United Kingdom.
* Cannabis rescheduling in the United States.
* Drug policy of the Netherlands.
* Medical Cannabis discusses its use as a medication.
* Spiritual use of cannabis discusses sacramental and religious use.

== Dosage ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oral
|-
| Appetite Stimulation || 2.5mg
|-
| Appetite Stimulation (Chemotherapy) || 5mg (3x daily)
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Smoked
|-
| Light || 1/30g
|-
| Common (typical) || 2/30g
|-
| Strong || 3/30g
|}

== Duration ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oral
|-
| Onset || 30-120 minutes
|-
| Total || 4-10 hours
|-
| After-effects || 6-24 hours
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Smoked
|-
| Onset || 0-10 minutes
|-
| Total || 1-4 hours
|-
| After-effects || 2-24 hours
|}

== Effects ==
=== Positive ===
* Relaxation
* Analgesic (Painkiller)

=== Neutral ===
* Giggling
* Loss of inhibition

=== Negative ===
* Low carcinogenic risk when '''smoked''' (due to combustion of other materials)

== Harm Reduction ==

* The responsible cannabis user does not operate a motor vehicle or other dangerous machinery impaired by cannabis. Although cannabis is said by most experts to be safer than alcohol and many prescription drugs with motorists, public safety demands that impaired drivers be taken off the road and that objective measures of impairment be developed and used, rather than chemical testing.

* Cannabis consumption is for adults only. Many things and activities are suitable for young people, but others absolutely are not. Children do not drive cars, enter into contracts or marry, and they must not use drugs.

* The responsible cannabis user will carefully consider his/her setting and regulate use accordingly. The responsible cannabis consumer will be vigilant as to conditions -- time, place, mood, etc. -- and does not hesitate to say "no" when those conditions are not conducive to a safe, pleasant and/or productive experience.

* The responsible cannabis user does not violate the rights of others, observes accepted standards of courtesy and public propriety, and respects the preferences of those who wish to avoid cannabis entirely. Regardless of the legal status of cannabis, responsible users will adhere to emerging tobacco smoking protocols in public and private places.

* Recommended time (pauses) between using the substance

* Use of cannabis, to the extent that it impairs health, personal development or achievement, is abuse and should be resisted by responsible cannabis users. Abuse means harm. Some cannabis use is harmful; most is not. That which is harmful should be discouraged; that which is not need not be.

=== Research Chemicals ===

Cannibanoid research chemicals receive relatively frequent media coverage in cases of overdoses. This is generally because cannibanoids are often sold in blends without dosing information or sometimes even the active component - if you are looking to take cannibanoids in an informed manner, blends should be avoided unless accurate information is provided alongside it. When cannibanoids are bought in pure form, they are often active in the microgram range, and can be quite difficult to measure.

Overdoses of cannibanoids are generally known to cause hallucinatory experiences, which in turn often cause panic attacks. Larger overdoses may also cause heart issues. Repetitive heavy dosing of certain cannibanoids are suspected to cause organ damage.

See [[Research Chemicals]] for more information.

== Legal status ==

Both Cannabis and Tetrahydrocannabinols, the active chemicals contained in Cannabis plants, are Schedule I in the United States. This means they are federally illegal to cultivate, buy, possess, or distribute (sell, trade or give) in all forms (cannabis plants, extracts, hash, hash oil, thc, etc) except synthetic THC (Marinol) which is Schedule III.

Practically, simple possession of small amounts is almost never prosecuted federally.

The federal scheduling of Cannabis was disputed in 1988 by Judge Francis Young, an administrative law judge for the DEA, who recommended that marijuana be reclassified as schedule II on the grounds that if a respectable minority of doctors endorse it, then it has a "currently accepted medical use".

Cannabis has many reported medical uses and its active component is an approved drug in the US. The US government has, in the last 20 years, been forced to provide medical cannabis to 8 patients in the form of cannabis cigarettes although as a top level, federal policy has opposed any change in the status of cannabis to move it to a lower schedule. Over a dozen states now allow some provision for the medical use of cannabis, although only around 8 have effective protection (AK, CA, CO, HI, ME, NV, OR, WA).

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Depressant]]
[[Category:Drugs]]